B. anthracis

Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 1991 Dec 1, 104(12), 403 - 8
{Blood analysis 200 years ago--the theory and practice of hematoscopy in veterinary medicine}; Schaffer J; Since antiquity the macroscopic judgement of blood obtained through phlebotomy was an important constituent of the medical diagnostic procedures . In the progress of blood sedimentation, the "eucrasia" or the "dyscrasia" of the humours became visible . This paper summarizes the historical and theoretical basis of the haematoscopy, and offers insight into the haemodiagnostic practices of a veterinarian at the end of the 18th century . The authority is the professor of veterinary art and medical advisor Anton Joseph Will (1752-1821), mental father and founder of the veterinary school in Munich, which opened its doors on the 1st of November 1790 . Between 1786 and 1790, A . J . Will developed a research program to control animal diseases in Bavaria and examined several thousands of blood samples from healthy and sick animals . The different components of coagulated blood, infected with anthrax, were given to dogs . In this way, he could demonstrate experimentally the high infectiousness of anthrax.

Infect Immun, 1991 Oct, 59(10), 3381 - 6
Anthrax protective antigen interacts with a specific receptor on the surface of CHO-K1 cells; Escuyer V et al.; The interaction of protective antigen (PA), a component of the anthrax toxin, with receptors on the Chinese hamster ovary cell line CHO-K1 was characterized . Protective antigen binding at 4 degrees C is highly specific, concentration dependent, saturable (Kd = 0.9 nM), and reversible . Scatchard analysis indicates the presence of a single class of PA binding sites at a concentration of 10,000 +/- 2,000 per cell . Pretreatment of cells with a number of different proteases strongly inhibits PA binding, suggesting that the receptor may be at least partially proteinaceous . Direct chemical cross-linking of radioiodinated PA to the cell surface results in the appearance of a major band exhibiting an apparent molecular mass of 170 kDa, as estimated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis . The appearance of this band is completely inhibited by a 200-fold molar excess of unlabeled PA, indicating a high specificity for this interaction . Our results suggest that a cell surface protein(s) of 85 to 90 kDa is, or constitutes a portion of, a specific receptor for the PA.

Infect Dis Clin North Am, 1991 Sep, 5(3), 649 - 61
Respiratory infections transmitted from animals; Weinberg AN; The physician's approach to the differential diagnosis of obscure, atypical pneumonias has changed . The physician needs to expand the diagnostic search when confronted with a perplexing, progressive atypical pneumonia . Diseases examined in this article include anthrax, psittacosis, Q fever, tularemia, pasteurellosis, melioidosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and the plague.

Vaccine, 1991 Aug, 9(8), 533 - 9
Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future; Turnbull PC; Most livestock vaccines in use throughout the world today for immunization against anthrax are derivatives of the live spore vaccine formulated by Sterne in 1937 and still use descendants of his strain 34F2 . Credit belongs to this formulation for effective control in many countries with considerable reduction, sometimes complete elimination, of the disease in animals and, since man generally acquires it from livestock, in man also . However, there are some contraindications of its use and situations in which it cannot be easily administered, and room for development of a successor is discussed . The human vaccines, formulated for at-risk occupations and situations, date from the 1950s (UK vaccine) and 1960s (US vaccine) . The rather greater need for improvement of these as compared with the veterinary vaccine stimulated valuable research during the 1980s which has led to a number of promising candidate alternatives for the future.

Antibiot Khimioter, 1991 Jul, 36(7), 22 - 5
{Comparative multifactorial analysis of combined administration of injection and peroral forms of an antibiotic with a microbial immunomodulator in experimental anthrax}; Nikitin AV et al.; Comparative efficacy of the use of injection and oral dosage forms of rifampicin in the subtherapeutic doses in combination with peptidoglycan , an immunomodulator of microbial origin, was studied in respect to experimental anthracic infection with application of multifactorial analysis . It was shown that the antibiotic and immunomodulator had a pronounced synergistic effect . Polynomial statistic models were developed and nomograms or equal level curves defining the survival rate and average life-span (ALS) of the experimental animals within a wide range of the antibiotic and immunomodulator doses and the peptidoglycan dosing time were plotted . The combined use of the injection rifampicin in the subtherapeutic doses and the immunomodulator provided a significant increase in the survival rate and ALS, whereas the use of the oral antibiotic in combination with the immunomodulator increased only the ALS and not the survival rate . Multifactorial analysis proved to be an optimal methodical approach to comparative study of various antibiotic dosage forms used in combination with immunomodulators under experimental conditions.

Schweiz Med Wochenschr, 1991 Jun 1, 121(22), 832 - 5
{Inhalation anthrax in a textile worker: non-fatal course}; Winter H et al.; The development of dyspnea, hematemesis, melaena and symptoms of shock following an apparently minor infection of the upper respiratory tract in a 37-year-old textile worker marked the onset of an acute threatening illness . Pleuracentesis revealed 3.8 l of hemorrhagic exudate . Chest x-rays showed a significant increase in mediastinal width . Conspicuous laboratory findings were hemoconcentration, anemia and leukocytosis, and increased serum activities for SGOT, SGPT and alkaline phosphatase . The infection occurred during an industrial epidemic of 24 cases of cutaneous anthrax, and the diagnosis of inhalation anthrax was based on the occupational exposure and a positive "Anthraxin" skin test which was later confirmed by EIA . The patient survived the usually fatal illness after treatment with antibiotics and prednisolone.

Mol Microbiol, 1991 Jun, 5(6), 1501 - 6
Anthrax toxin protective antigen: low-pH-induced hydrophobicity and channel formation in liposomes; Koehler TM et al.; To probe the role of the protective antigen (PA) component of anthrax toxin in toxin entry into animals cells, we examined the membrane channel-forming properties and hydrophobicity of intact and trypsin-cleaved forms of the protein at various pH values . At neutral pH neither form caused release of entrapped K+ from unilamellar lipid vesicles . At pH values below 6.0, however, K+ was rapidly released upon addition of either the nicked PA (PAN) or the 63 kDa tryptic fragment of PA (PA63), which has been implicated in the toxin entry process . Under the same conditions intact PA exhibited only weak channel-forming activity, and PA20, the complementary tryptic fragment, showed no such activity . Both PA and PA63 exhibited enhanced hydrophobicity at acidic pH values, but the enhancement was greater and the pH threshold higher with PA63 . Our findings indicate that proteolytic removal of PA20 from intact PA enables the residual protein, PA63, to adopt a conformation at mildly acidic pH values that permits it to insert readily and form channels in membranes . Thus acidic conditions within endocytic vesicles may trigger membrane insertion of PA63, which in turn promotes translocation of ligated effector moieties, edema factor or lethal factor, across the vesicle membrane into the cytosol.

Antibiot Khimioter, 1991 Mar, 36(3), 42 - 4
{Multifactorial experiment on the combined action of doxycycline and a low molecular weight immunomodulator of microbial origin in experimental anthrax infection}; Nikitin AV et al.; Chemotherapeutic efficacy of combined therapy of experimental anthrax infection with subtherapeutic doses of doxycycline and a low molecular weight immunomodulator of microbial origin was studied with mathematical design of the experiment and multifactorial analysis . A marked synergistic effect of oral doxycycline and the immunomodulator was observed . The results of the multifactorial experiment were computer processed and polynomial statistic models (the second order equations) describing the survival rate and mean lifespan (MLS) were derived . The equal level lines characterizing the survival rate and MLS were plotted against the fixed values of the time factor of administering the immunomodulator and the dose of the antibiotic . The doses of the immunomodulator and the time of its administration were optimized with respect to the maximum therapeutic effect with doxycycline subtherapeutic doses.

Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 1991 Feb, 12(1), 36 - 9
{The specificity of plague antigen FI in PHA}; Zhang HY; It were inoculate a total of the 15 type and 13 group Leptospira strains to the Rattus flavipetus and Rattus lose 137 rates in Lei Zhou peninsula . As the antisera acquired, it has been examined the lyso-agglutinative test in Leptospira strains . Up to standard serum it was to test for PHA of plaque, employing the sensitized blood cell by FI from 4 antiplague institutes . All of tests are negative . In addition to test for 3 immune sera, Hemorrhagic Fever antisera (Immunized animals Apodemus agraius, Rattus norvegicus, Mouse and Rabbit), anthrax antiserum, there were be negative by PHA of plague test, at same time by RIA test also be negative . Therefore all of the other antisera would not be interfering with specificity of the plague FI antiserum in PHA or RIA test.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1990 Dec, (12), 38 - 40
{The prediction of the activity of anthrax foci in Voronezh Province}; Krasil'nikov VR et al.; During the period of 1959-1985 the activity of the foci of anthrax in Voronezh Province was found to be related to the state of some meteorological factors in the previous year and the number of murine {correction of myomorphous} rodents in hayricks and stacks of straw in early spring of the current year, this relationship being stable and statistically significant . Multiple regression equations permitting the annual quantitative prognostication of the intensity of the epizootic and epidemic situations were worked out.

Cesk Pediatr, 1990 Nov, 45(11), 641 - 7
{The status of natural immunity in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia evaluated by long-term monitoring of complement-dependent bacteriocidal antibodies against B . anthracis and its relation to prognosis}; Cap J et al.; The authors investigated the function of the time factor as regards changes of bacteriocidity levels of serum against B . anthracis . Due to the fact that anthrax has not occurred in this country for several decades, we can speak of an investigation of natural immunity in the wider sense of the word . In the course of 15 years the authors collected repeatedly blood specimens from 53 children with ALL before, during and after treatment . Active sera were examined by quantitative titration by means of microbes labelled with 51Cr . The results of the investigation revealed that mean values of bacteriocidity calculated from all specimens and for each child separately are higher in the groups of children with a favourable course of the disease, as compared with children with an adverse course of the disease . It was also found that in a high percentage (78%) patients with long-term remission of leukaemia have a rising trend of bacteriocidity and the majority of children with a relapse of the disease (69%) had a bacteriocidity of serum with a declining trend (p = 0.01) . The prognostic value of the test is unequivocally apparent from the results of the "life table" analysis . Children with an event free survival as well as the number of surviving children was significantly higher in the group with a rising trend of bacteriocidity than in patients with a declining trend of bacteriocidity (p = 0.008 and p = 0.02).

Indian J Med Res, 1990 Nov, 91, 448 - 52
Outbreak of human anthrax in Ramabhadrapuram village of Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh; Sekhar PC et al.; Thirty human anthrax cases were reported from Ramabhadrapuram village of Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh during November-December, 1989 . These cases occurred following an epizootic of anthrax among cattle and sheep of the village and ingestion of contaminated meat by the villagers . The overall attack rate was 24.39 per cent with a case fatality of 16.67 per cent . All age groups and both sexes were affected . Ten cases were of cutaneous form with typical black eschar formation which were confirmed bacteriologically . Fever and headache were common systemic manifestations . They responded well to penicillins and there was no mortality . The possibility of human to human spread is suggested . The twenty cases of internal anthrax comprised intestinal, septicemic, peritonitis, meningeal and pulmonary forms . Sub-clinical forms also occurred . Fever, abdominal pain, ascites, anorexia and vomiting were notable features . Diagnosis was made clinically and also on epidemiological basis . All deaths during this outbreak occurred in women with internal anthrax, the case fatality rate for the latter being 25 per cent . Prophylactic administration of penicillin was done for individuals at risk.

J Gen Physiol, 1990 Nov, 96(5), 943 - 57
Diffusion limitation in the block by symmetric tetraalkylammonium ions of anthrax toxin channels in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes; Blaustein RO et al.; Current flow through the channel formed in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes by the PA65 fragment of anthrax toxin is blocked, in a voltage-dependent manner, by tetraalkylammonium ions (at micromolar concentrations), which bind to a blocking site within the channel lumen . We have presented evidence that diffusion plays a significant role in the kinetics of blocking by tetrabutylammonium ion (Bu4N+) from the cis (toxin-containing) side of the membrane (Blaustein, R . O., E . J . A . Lea, and A . Finkelstein . 1990 . J . Gen . Physiol . 96:921-942); in this paper we examine the implications and consequences of diffusion control for binding kinetics . As expected for a diffusion-affected reaction, both the entry rate constant (kcis1) of Bu4N+ from the cis solution to the blocking site and the exit rate constant (kcis-1) of Bu4N+ from the blocking site to the cis solution are reduced if the viscosity of that medium is increased by the addition of dextran . In conformity with both thermodynamics and kinetic arguments, however, the voltage-dependent equilibrium binding constant, Keq (= kcis-1/kcis1), is not altered by the dextran-induced viscosity increase of the cis solution . The entry rate constants (kcis1) for tetrapentylammonium (Pe4N+), tetrahexylammonium (Hx4N+), and tetraheptylammonium (Hp4N+) are also diffusion controlled, and all of them, including that for Bu4N+, attain a voltage-independent plateau value at large positive cis voltages consistent with diffusion limitation . Although the plateau value of kcis1 for Hx4N+ is only a factor of 3 less than that for Bu4N+, the plateau value for Hp4N+ is a factor of 35 less . This precipitous fall in value indicates, from diffusion-limitation theory, that the diameter of the channel entrance facing the cis solution is not much larger than the diameter of Hp4N+, i.e., approximately 12 A.

J Gen Physiol, 1990 Nov, 96(5), 921 - 42
Voltage-dependent block of anthrax toxin channels in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes by symmetric tetraalkylammonium ions . Single-channel analysis; Blaustein RO et al.; Previous studies have shown that symmetric tetraalkylammonium ions affect, in a voltage-dependent manner, the conductance of membranes containing many channels formed by the PA65 fragment of anthrax toxin . In this paper we analyze this phenomenon at the single-channel level for tetrabutylammonium ion (Bu4N+) . We find that Bu4N+ induces a flickery block of the PA65 channel when present on either side of the membrane, and this block is relieved by large positive voltages on the blocking-ion side . At high frequencies (greater than 2 kHz) we have resolved individual blocking events and measured the dwell times in the blocked and unblocked states . These dwell times have single-exponential distributions, with time constants tau b and tau u that are voltage dependent, consistent with the two-barrier, single-well potential energy diagram that we postulated in our previous paper . The fraction of time the channel spends unblocked {tau u/(tau u + tau b)} as a function of voltage is identical to the normalized conductance-voltage relation determined from macroscopic measurements of blocking, thus demonstrating that these single channels mirror the behavior seen with many (greater than 10,000) channels in the membrane . In going from large negative to large positive voltages (-100 to +160 mV) on the cis (PA65-containing) side of the membrane, one sees the mean blocked time (tau b) increase to a maximum at +60 mV and then steadily decline for voltages greater than +60 mV, thereby clearly demonstrating that Bu4N+ is driven through the channel by positive voltages on the blocking-ion side . In other words, the channel is permeable to Bu4N+ . An interesting finding that emerges from analysis of the voltage dependence of mean blocked and unblocked times is that the blocking rate, with Bu4N+ present on the cis side of the membrane, plateaus at large positive cis voltages to a voltage-independent value consistent with the rate of Bu4N+ entry into the blocking site being diffusion limited.

J Gen Physiol, 1990 Nov, 96(5), 905 - 19
Voltage-dependent block of anthrax toxin channels in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes by symmetric tetraalkylammonium ions . Effects on macroscopic conductance; Blaustein RO et al.; In a recent paper (Blaustein, R . O., T . M . Koehler, R . J . Collier, and A . Finkelstein, 1989 . Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA . 86:2209-2213) we described the general channel-forming properties of the PA65 fragment of anthrax toxin in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes . In the present paper we extend our previous studies of the permeability properties of this channel, using a series of symmetric tetraalkylammonium (TAA) ions . Our main finding is that at micromolar concentrations on either the cis (toxin-containing) or trans side of a membrane containing many (greater than 1,000) channels, these ions, ranging in size from tetramethylammonium to tetrahexylammonium, induce a voltage-dependent reduction of membrane conductance . (We attribute a similar voltage-dependent reduction of membrane conductance by millimolar concentrations of HEPES to a cationic form of this buffer present at micromolar concentrations.) In going from large negative to large positive voltages (on the TAA side) one sees that the conductance first decreases from its value in the absence of TAA, reaches a minimum, and then rises back at larger positive voltages toward the level in the absence of TAA . Our interpretation of this behavior is that these symmetric TAA ions block the cation-selective PA65 channel in a voltage-dependent manner . We postulate that there is a single site within the channel to which TAA ions can bind and thereby block the passage of the major current-carrying ion (potassium) . A blocking ion is driven into the site by modest positive voltages, but is driven off the site and through the channel by larger positive voltages, thus explaining the relief of block . (In the accompanying paper {Blaustein, R . O., E . J . A . Lea, and A . Finkelstein . 1990 . J . Gen . Physiol . 96:921-942} we confirm this interpretation of the data by analysis at the single-channel level.) This means that these blocking ions can pass through the channel; the permeability to tetrahexylammonium, the largest ion studied, implies that the narrowest part of the channel has a diameter of at least 11 A.

Ann Trop Med Parasitol, 1990 Oct, 84(5), 507 - 12
Outbreak of anthrax in Thailand; Kunanusont C et al.; An outbreak of anthrax occurred among 14 persons exposed to the meat of two water buffalo which had died from anthrax, in two neighbouring villages in the northeastern region of Thailand . All but one case had typical eschars or blisters . Three had eaten raw meat; one of them died from gastric anthrax with severe haematemesis . All the others were successfully treated with penicillin . The incubation period varied between two and 11 days . Sporadic outbreaks of human and animal anthrax still occur in Southeast Asia.

Vet Rec, 1990 Sep 29, 127(13), 321 - 4
An outbreak of anthrax in pigs: a practitioner's account; Edginton AB; An outbreak of anthrax occurred in a 500 sow unit at Singret Farm, Llay, during the summer of 1989 . This paper describes the sequence of events leading up to the depopulation of the farm, as seen and recorded by a veterinary surgeon in the practice involved . Some of the problems encountered and their significance for the future are discussed.

Ophthalmic Physiol Opt, 1990 Jul, 10(3), 300 - 1
Anthrax of the eyelid; Barnard NA; Anthrax is a rare infection that is transmitted to humans from animals or animal products . In its cutaneous form it may produce lesions of the eyelids which can lead to cicatricization and ectropion . Exophthalmos, optic atrophy and panophthalmitis have also been reported . A case of anthrax affecting the eyelid of a patient seen by the author in Kabul, Afghanistan, is presented.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1990 Jun, (6), 3 - 7
{Experimental anthrax infection in laboratory animals with differing species susceptibility to the causative agent}; Kolesnik VS et al.; In guinea pigs and noninbred white mice, infected subcutaneously with anthrax which resulted in their death, characteristic generalized infection with the hematogenic contamination of their organs and the signs of intoxication and shock could be observed . In inbred white rats (Fisher 344) the invasion and dissemination of B . anthracis are relatively slightly pronounced, the phenomena of intoxication and shock being clearly prevalent.

Trop Geogr Med, 1990 Apr, 42(2), 168 - 71
Cutaneous anthrax; Aksaray N et al.; In this report we present two children with cutaneous anthrax which is rarely seen in developing countries . There is usually a history of contact with animals . One of our patients did not have such a contact.

Br Poult Sci, 1990 Mar, 31(1), 3 - 22
Gordon memorial lecture . Vaccines and vaccination--past, present and future; Biggs PM; 1 . Immunisation was first practised as early as the 10th century when small doses of smallpox material administered by unusual routes were used to immunise against smallpox . The procedure was introduced into England in the early part of the 18th century . 2 . The next major development was the use by Jenner of cowpox to vaccinate against smallpox in the late 18th century . 3 . Some eighty years later came the classic studies of Pasteur developing vaccines for fowl cholera, anthrax and rabies . 4 . The studies of Jenner and Pasteur established the major principles of vaccination which are in use to this day . 5 . The major viral diseases of the domestic fowl were recognised during the 1920s and 1930s and in most cases vaccines were developed within 5 years of the discovery of the viral nature of the cause of each disease . 6 . The desirable properties of poultry vaccines required by the user and producer are not completely fulfilled by currently available vaccines . 7 . There is a need to use the opportunities provided by modern biotechnology and immunology to search for and develop vaccines that better fulfil the desirable properties of poultry vaccines . 8 . There are a number of strategies available for the development of novel vaccines, some of which are appropriate for the needs of poultry vaccines.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1990 Feb, (2), 62 - 7
{The effect of lethal anthrax toxin on the functional activity of peritoneal mononuclear phagocytes and polymorphonuclear neutrophils in mice}; Abalakin VA et al.; The mixture of purified protective antigen (PA) and the lethal factor (LF) of B . anthracis exotoxin in a dose incapable of causing cell damage inhibited the zymosan-stimulated luminol-dependent chemiluminescence of mononuclear phagocytes (MP) and polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) in CBA mice and enhanced the chemiluminescence of PMN in BALB/c, CC57W and A/Sn mice . The conclusion is made that the capacity of mixture of PA and LF for the in vitro inhibition of stimulated production of active forms of oxygen in MP and PMN is directly related to the in vivo immunosuppressing activity of B . anthracis toxin . But the influence of the mixture of PA and LF on the production of active forms of oxygen in MP and PMN is not the leading factor of natural immunity to B . anthracis infection in mice.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1989 Dec, (12), 63 - 8
{The detection of specific antigens in experimental anthrax}; Abalakin VA et al.; The dynamics of various specific antigens was studied in guinea pigs infected with strain 72/12 of Tsenkovskii's second vaccine . The study showed that at the acute stage of the disease toxin antigens prevailed over the levels of somatic antigens and nonprotective protein with a molecular weight of 79 KD . The enzyme immunoassay system for the detection of the lethal toxin factor permitted the detection of the antigen in the blood sera of 100% of infected animals at the prodromal period and the acute stage of the disease . In pathological material obtained from skin lesions the presence of toxin antigens and nonprotective protein was registered in 90-100% of the animals . The diagnostic significance of these assays for the early rapid diagnosis of anthrax during lifetime, as well as for the postmortem rapid diagnosis of the disease.

Br J Ophthalmol, 1989 Oct, 73(10), 809 - 11
Cutaneous anthrax leading to corneal scarring from cicatricial ectropion; Yorston D et al.; Eleven patients with cutaneous anthrax of the eyelids are presented . The complications were cicatricial ectropion (eight patients), resulting in corneal scarring (three patients) . The ectropion was corrected by full thickness postauricular skin grafts, with good results . The predilection of this infection for the eyelids of young children and a seasonal variation suggest that a vector may be involved in transmission.

J Infect Dis, 1989 Oct, 160(4), 706 - 10
Evaluation of serologic tests for diagnosis of anthrax after an outbreak of cutaneous anthrax in Paraguay; Harrison LH et al.; An outbreak of at least 21 cases of cutaneous anthrax occurred in rural Paraguay . A case-control study revealed that disease was associated with touching the raw meat of an ill cow (odds ration = 16.5, P = .02) . Serum drawn from 12 cases and 16 colony and 2 noncolony controls 6 w after the outbreak were analyzed by electrophoretic-immunotransblots (EITB) to detect serum antibodies to the protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor components of anthrax toxin . Serum was also tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the presence of antibodies to poly-D-glutamic acid capsule . Of 12 cases, 11 had a positive PA screen, for a sensitivity of 91.7% (76.1%-100%, 95% confidence interval {CI}) whereas none of the 18 controls was positive for a specificity of 100% (84.8%, one-sided binomial 95% CI) . Only 6 (50%) of 12 cases (21.7%-78.3%, 95% CI) had positive lethal factor titers; all controls were negative . At a cutoff of greater than or equal to 1:32 for antibodies to capsule, 11 (91.7%) of 12 (76.1%-100%, 95% CI) were positive; 16 (88.9%) of 18 controls (74.5%-100%, 95% CI) were negative . These data suggest that the EITB for detection of antibody to PA, and ELISA for detection of anticapsule antibodies are both sensitive for the retrospective diagnosis of anthrax . Both tests were specific, but EITB may be more so than ELISA.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1989 Sep, (9), 14 - 8
{Specific intoxication in anthrax infection}; Kolesnik VS et al.; The pathomorphological picture of experimental B . anthracis infection in white rats (strain Fisher-344) essentially corresponds to experimental anthracic intoxication with very moderately pronounced morphological manifestation of B . anthracis invasion . This indicates that specific anthracic intoxication is an essential component of the pathological process in B . anthracis infection.

Clin Ter, 1989 Aug 15-31, 130(3-4), 205 - 15
{Anthrax}; Melino C et al.; Having dwelled on the etiopathogenetic, pathologic, and clinical features of human infections caused by B . anthracis, the authors review and analyze epidemiological data of the cases of anthrax registered in Italy during the last ten years . Actual possibilities for prevention are evaluated in view of the fact that enzootic foci still exist in our country which are clearly responsible for the typically occupational occurrence of this type of infection in certain at-risk categories (farmers, husbandmen, butchers, veterinarians, but also workers in those branches of industry which use materials of animal origin, such as wool, leather, bristles, fur, etc.).

Med Trop (Mars), 1989 Jul-Sep, 49(3), 245 - 51
{Anthrax in Chad: a zoonosis that still exists today}; Lamarque D et al.; An epidemic of human and animal anthrax raged in Chad mainly in the Department of Chari Baguirmi from September to December 1988, infesting more than 50% of donkeys and horses . 716 human cases have been reported, with 88 deaths . Thanks to a geographical distribution of animal and human prevalence, one sees immediately the interdependency between sanitary state of live-stock and public health . An unusual means of transmission from donkey to donkey by insects as the vector is suggested to explain the intensity of animal epidemics . Two strains of B . anthracis were isolated and described . Systematic annual prophylactic inoculation of the live-stock is recommended, and also resumption of research to create a polyvalent vaccine for cattle plague/peripneumonia and anthrax.

Infect Immun, 1989 Jul, 57(7), 2107 - 14
Calcium is required for the expression of anthrax lethal toxin activity in the macrophagelike cell line J774A.1; Bhatnagar R et al.; Anthrax lethal toxin, which consists of two separate proteins, protective antigen (Mr, 82,700) and lethal factor (Mr, approximately 83,000), is cytotoxic to the macrophagelike cell line J774A.1 . Removal of calcium from the culture medium protected cells against the action of lethal toxin . Calcium depletion during the binding phase of intoxication afforded only partial protection . Further analysis showed that calcium removal caused some inhibition of protective antigen binding but that it had minimal effect on proteolytic conversion of protective antigen to the active 63-kilodalton fragment and that it had no effect on lethal factor binding . Cells to which lethal toxin had bound in the presence of calcium were protected when transferred to calcium-depleted culture medium, indicating a role for calcium at a postbinding stage . When ammonium chloride is present with lethal toxin, toxin accumulates in intracellular vesicles . Calcium-free medium protected these cells upon removal of the amine block, suggesting that calcium is also required at a step after internalization of lethal toxin . Calcium channel blockers inhibited 45Ca2+ uptake and protected cells against cytotoxicity . Calmodulin inhibitors also protected against the action of lethal toxin, suggesting involvement of calmodulin at a step during intoxication . We conclude that calcium is required at several steps in the intoxication of cells by anthrax lethal toxin.

Trop Geogr Med, 1989 Apr, 41(2), 108 - 12
Anthrax in Ethiopia; Seboxa T et al.; Twenty-seven patients with cutaneous anthrax were identified over a three-year period at Gondar College of Medical Sciences in North Central Ethiopia . Nine patients who delayed seeking medical care presented with severe symptoms and three patients died . Eighteen patients were clustered within four families in which an attack rate of 32% occurred . Ninety-three percent of patients could trace their disease to exposure to the products of a specific diseased animal . Characteristics of anthrax in Ethiopia include a known exposure to diseased animals, occurrence within families, frequent treatment by local healers, and high morbidity and mortality.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1989 Mar, (3), 98 - 100
{Anthrax toxin dynamics in the body}; Golubinskii EP et al.; Anthrax toxin introduced subcutaneously into white rats Fisher-344 caused specific intoxication accompanied by characteristic pathomorphological changes and, when studied by the immunoperoxidase method in histological sections, could be detected in the blood stream (in plasma) and in the cytoplasm of macrophages (in the lungs and the spleen) . The content of the preparation introduced into the animals in the blood stream is directly related to its toxicity, being probably indicative of the relative functional failure of the macrophagal system.

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 1988 Dec, 39(6), 575 - 81
Serological studies of patients with cutaneous and oral-oropharyngeal anthrax from northern Thailand; Sirisanthana T et al.; An outbreak of 52 cases of cutaneous anthrax and 24 cases of oral-oropharyngeal anthrax occurred in rural Northern Thailand in 1982, caused by contaminated water buffalo meat . Microbiologic diagnosis of many of these cases was hindered by delayed presentation for care and by prior antibiotic therapy . In a retrospective investigation, we used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to measure antibody titers to components of anthrax edema toxin (edema factor {EF} and protective antigen {PA}), lethal toxin (lethal factor {LF} and PA), and poly-D-glutamic acid capsule . Electrophoretic-immunotransblots (EITB, Western blot) were used to detect antibodies to PA and LF . Nine patients with cutaneous anthrax, 10 patients with oral-oropharyngeal anthrax, and 43 healthy unexposed Thai control villagers were studied . Over all, EITB was positive in 13/18 patients (sensitivity 72%) and 0/43 controls (specificity 100%) . The sensitivity of the ELISA was 72% for PA, 42% for LF, 26% for EF, and 95-100% for capsule . Although a few control sera had apparent false positive titers to PA, the specificity of the ELISA confirmed by EITB (100%) demonstrated the applicability of these tests for the diagnosis of anthrax.

Biochem J, 1988 Jun 15, 252(3), 753 - 8
Purification of anthrax-toxin components by high-performance anion-exchange, gel-filtration and hydrophobic-interaction chromatography; Quinn CP et al.; A procedure has been developed for purification of the tripartite anthrax-toxin components . This involves sequential high-performance anion-exchange, gel-filtration and hydrophobic-interaction chromatography . From an initial culture volume of 15 litres, typical yields of 8 mg of protective antigen, 13 mg of lethal factor and 7 mg of oedema factor are produced to higher degrees of purity than have previously been achieved by conventional chromatographic techniques.

J Infect Dis, 1988 Apr, 157(4), 690 - 6
Lipopolysaccharide releases a priming substance from platelets that augments the oxidative response of polymorphonuclear neutrophils to chemotactic peptide; Wright GG et al.; Human neutrophils produce small amounts of O2- when stimulated with the chemotactic peptide F-Met-Leu-Phe; preincubating neutrophils with low concentrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) markedly increases this response, an effect referred to as priming . Neutrophil suspensions without mononuclear cells and platelets were insusceptible to priming by 10 ng of LPS; susceptibility was restored by reintroducing platelets, approximately five platelets per neutrophil . Incubation of platelets with 10 ng of LPS/mL released a soluble factor that produced graded priming responses of at least fivefold in neutrophils . The priming factor had the properties of a labile protein and did not resemble previously described mediators derived from platelets . Anthrax toxin, which inhibits priming of neutrophils by LPS, inhibited priming by the platelet factor but not release of the factor from platelets . Thus, the platelet factor mediates a portion of the overall priming effect of LPS and thereby modulates the level of O2- generation by neutrophils.

Nauchnye Doki Vyss Shkoly Biol Nauki, 1988, (11), 16 - 20
{Effect of anthrax toxin on the chemiluminescence of human leukocytes}; Tafel'shtein EE et al.; The effect of substrate containing crude anthrax toxin on the phagocytosing leukocyte chemiluminescence has been studied . Preliminary toxin incubation with leukocytes for 60 min blocks cell chemiluminescence in the linear ratio effect concentration in the protein component of the toxin; the minimum concentration of the toxin protein component inhibiting the phagocytosing leukocyte luminescence is 3-5 micrograms per 5 x 10(5) cells . The substrate pure mixture of the oedema factor and protective antigen inhibits the chemiluminescence more intensively than crude toxin does . Inhibiting chemiluminescence activity of the anthrax toxin is directly proportional to its adenylate cyclase activity.

Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl), 1988, 177(5), 293 - 303
Antibodies to anthrax toxin in humans and guinea pigs and their relevance to protective immunity; Turnbull PC et al.; A forerunning study on the relationship between antibodies to the protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF) components of anthrax toxin and protective immunity has been expanded and extended to include the third toxin component, the edema factor (EF) . It was found that protection against the "vaccine resistant" Ames strain was possible in the absence of detectable anti-LF and anti-EF antibodies . Evidence is given that PA may be the essential anthrax-derived antigen for protection, but that equally essential is that it be presented to the host's immune system in such a manner as to provide stimulation of more than just production of antibody to PA . Titers to the three components in sera of individuals with histories of clinically diagnosed anthrax as well as from human vaccinees are included in the report.

Cutis, 1987 Aug, 40(2), 117 - 8
Cutaneous anthrax; Kutluk MT et al.; The case of a 9-year-old boy diagnosed and treated for cutaneous anthrax is presented . We discuss the clinical features and course of this disease, encountered today only rarely in less developed regions where humans are in contact with infected animals.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1987 Aug, (8), 98 - 101
{Experimental characteristics of anthrax intoxication}; Kolesnik VS et al.; In experimental anthrax intoxication, a highly important stage of its pathogenesis consists in microcirculatory disturbances with the phenomena of blood sludge, accompanied by the increased permeability of blood vessels not only for plasma, but also for red blood cells . These disturbances result in perivascular hemorrhages, hemorrhagic infiltrations, edema and cavitary transudates . Pulmonary edema and, as a consequence, the accumulation of fluid in pulmonary alveoli and the respiratory tract are of particular importance and, probably, can be considered the basic cause of the ensuing acute and fatal asphyxia . Such vascular and pulmonary insufficiency is accompanied by a decrease in the content of macroergic compounds (and in particular ATP), the characteristic deformation of red blood cells and disturbances in their oxygen transport function, which is linked with the decreased content of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate.

J Exp Med, 1986 Nov 1, 164(5), 1700 - 9
Anthrax toxin blocks priming of neutrophils by lipopolysaccharide and by muramyl dipeptide; Wright GG et al.; We studied the pretreatment of human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) with purified preparations of the anthrax toxin components--protective antigen (PA), edema factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF)--and their effects on release of superoxide anion (O-2) after stimulation with the chemotactic peptide N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (FMLP) . PMN isolated in the absence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (less than 0.1 ng/ml) released only small amounts of O-2 after FMLP stimulation; pretreatment with anthrax toxin had little effect . The release of O-2 was increased fivefold by prior treatment with 3 ng/ml LPS for 1 h at 37 degrees C, an effect referred to as priming . PMN were primed to an equivalent extent by treatment with 100 ng/ml N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (muramyl dipeptide {MDP}) . Pretreatment of PMN with anthrax toxin components PA plus EF or PA plus LF inhibited priming by LPS or MDP, as shown by the reduction in the release of O-2 up to 90% relative to controls not treated with toxin; single toxin components were inactive . The inhibition was markedly reduced when priming with LPS or MDP was carried out before exposure to toxin . O-2 release after stimulation by phorbol myristate acetate was not increased by priming, and pretreatment with toxin did not inhibit O-2 release after this stimulus . Evidently, anthrax toxin inhibits the priming that is normally induced in PMN by bacterial products and is necessary for the full expression of antimicrobial effects.

Schweiz Med Wochenschr, 1986 Sep 6, 116(36), 1222 - 8
{Anthrax meningitis}; Durst UN et al.; Anthrax meningitis may complicate cutaneous, inhalation, or gastrointestinal anthrax, although it occurs in less than 5% of patients . Between 1935 and 1985 60 cases of human anthrax were notified in Switzerland . This report of a fatal case in a 54-year-old woman is the third case of inhalation anthrax and the second of meningeal complication with cortical hemorrhages in our country . There was no known source of infection . The clinical, microbiological and histopathological profile, therapy and prognosis are presented.

J Biol Chem, 1986 Jun 5, 261(16), 7123 - 6
Macrophages are sensitive to anthrax lethal toxin through an acid-dependent process; Friedlander AM; Anthrax lethal toxin, which consists of two proteins, protective antigen and lethal factor, is lethal for experimental animals . This study describes the first in vitro system demonstrating lethality of the toxin . Mouse peritoneal macrophages are killed within 1 h of exposure to the toxin . Neither protein component alone shows any toxic activity . The minimal effective concentration of protective antigen and lethal factor was approximately equal to 10(-2) and approximately equal to 10(-3) micrograms/ml, respectively . None of the several established cell lines examined was killed . Cells could be completely protected from the toxin by pretreatment with agents, such as amines or monensin, which dissipate intracellular proton gradients and raise the pH of intracellular vesicles . This protection was reversible and could be overcome by lowering the intravesicular pH . Antitoxin added after preincubation with amines was unable to protect cells subsequently exposed to low pH treatment . These results suggest that anthrax lethal toxin requires passage through an acidic endocytic vesicle in order to exert its toxic effect within the cytosol.

J Trop Med Hyg, 1986 Feb, 89(1), 43 - 5
Anthrax in man and cattle in Bangladesh; Samad MA et al.; The occurrence of anthrax in 62 cattle and 27 humans in Pabna milk shed areas of Bangladesh was recorded during 1980-84 . There were 62 sick animals: 43 (69%) died, 14 (23%) recovered with penicillin treatment and only five (8%) were slaughtered in a moribund stage, for human consumption . All 27 people who developed malignant pustules were cured with penicillin treatment within 14 days.

Mol Gen Mikrobiol Virusol, 1985 Dec, (12), 39 - 42
{The use of gel chromatography for the isolation of biologically active toxin complex from Bacillus anthrax}; Tafel'shtein EE et al.; The multistep fractioning of the protein components from cultural filtrate of B . anthracis grown on casaminoacids containing medium was done . The scheme for preliminary purification of a toxin complex of B . anthracis against low and high molecular mass contaminants has been elaborated and includes ultrafiltration, gel chromatography in ultragel AcA-202 and TSK-gel toyopal HW-55 . Biological activities of the complex,toxicity for laboratory animals and adenylate cyclase activity characteristic of B . anthracis toxin, are shown to remain intact in course of preliminary purification . Molecular masses of protein subunits from the fraction containing anthracis toxin activity reach 85-90 kD, 0.3-0.5 mg of toxin complex protein is yielded from 1 l of B . anthracis cultural filtrate.

Int J Zoonoses, 1985 Dec, 12(4), 276 - 82
Studies on anthrax in food animals and persons occupationally exposed to the zoonoses in Eastern Nigeria; Okolo MI; A total of 221 blood and 174 carcase swab samples obtained from food animals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and horses) slaughtered at urban and rural slaughter houses in Nsukka area were studied . 51 blood samples and 180 samples of vesicle fluid were also collected from persons occupationally exposed (butchers/skinners, meat retailers, meat inspectors, veterinarians and tanners) to these animals and their products . All the samples were studied culturally and microscopically . Confirmation of infection was by subcutaneous inoculation of guinea pigs and mice with samples of human and animal blood, carcase swabs and vesicle fluid got from suspected cutaneous lesions on the hands of persons studied in this survey . Of the blood samples obtained from food animals, 5 per cent (3/60) of cattle and 3.3 per cent (1/30) of sheep were positive . The rest of the blood samples from other animals were negative . For the carcase swab samples, 5.7 per cent (5/88) from cattle and 3.1 per cent (1/33) from sheep were positive . The rest of the carcase swabs from goats, pigs and horses were negative . Only the blood samples from butchers/skinners, 20 per cent (2/10), meat retailers, 9.1 per cent (1/11) and tanners, 11.1 per cent (1/9) were positive . Malignant pustule was confirmed in 13.3 per cent (6/45) of butchers/skinners, 10 per cent (3/30) of tanners and 6 per cent (3/50) of meat retailers . The results show that food animals and their products constitute a potential danger to those persons whose occupation necessitates handling animal products or contact with animals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Antibiot Med Biotekhnol, 1985 Nov, 30(11), 845 - 7
{Comparative evaluation of methods for determining the sensitivity of the anthrax microbe to antibiotics}; Proskurina VA et al.; Comparison of the results of determination of antibiotic sensitivity of the cultures of the anthrax causative agent with the methods of serial dilutions and paper disks revealed coincidence of their antibiotic sensitivity levels . The Unimicon-s and AGV media can be used for determination of antibiotic sensitivity of the anthrax causative agent by the above methods.

J Trop Med Hyg, 1985 Oct, 88(5), 327 - 31
Anthrax in Lake Rukwa Valley, Tanzania: a persistent problem; Webber RH; An epidemic of 239 human cases of anthrax is reported in the Rukwa Valley area of Tanzania . Although the infecting source was meat from animals dying of the disease, no intestinal cases occurred . Those infected were predominantly males between 15 and 35 . The epidemic was seasonal, reaching a peak towards the end of the dry period when cattle were close grazing, and declining rapidly once the rains started and the grass began to grow . The increasing magnitude of annual epidemics suggests that the problem will get worse unless major efforts are made to vaccinate cattle before the epidemic period.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1985 Feb, 180(2-3), 175 - 89
{Vaccination of animals and human health}; Mayr A; Prophylactic immunization of animals against obligat and nonobligat pathogenic zoonoses benefit human health in many ways both directly and indirectly . Typical examples of a direct protective effect are the vaccinations of dogs, cats and foxes against rabies as well as the vaccinations against respiratory diseases in cows, horses, dogs and cats to which the most varied species of pathogens of noncompulsory zoonoses contribute . A considerable contribution to the protection of human health is made by the vaccination against salmonellosis and leptospirosis, against vesicular stomatitis, American equine encephalitis and against other zoonoses spread by arthropods, against ecthyma and stomatitis papulosa as well as against brucellosis, anthrax, Q-fever, Newcastle disease and foot-and-mouth disease . The indirect effects of prophylactic vaccination of animals on human health are very complex and still need investigation . An example of this are the vaccinations of animals against human and animal influenza A viruses which can inhibit hybridisation and recombination between human and animal influenza viruses in an ecological system . Occasionally prophylactic vaccinations of animals can do harm to human health . This is invariably a rare incidence in immuno-suppressed persons caused by live vaccines i.e . prophylactic vaccination against Newcastle disease in fowl or against orthopox in animals by the use of the common vaccinia strains, after compulsory vaccination for humans had been cancelled . Prophylactic vaccinations of animals must be constantly followed up and their action on human health must be checked . In the case of positive results prophylactic vaccinations must be carried out selectively and in a wide range.

Med Trop (Mars), 1985 Jan-Mar, 45(1), 79 - 81
{Appearance of human anthrax in Ivory Coast forests}; Boutin JP et al.; Eight cases of human anthrax were reported in 1983 from Ivory Coast Republic, all of them in the tropical forest belt (7 degrees 30' N) . Clinical forms were: cephalic cutaneous (4 cases), intestinal (1 case) and very likely neurological (3 cases) . Human disease was correlated to epizootic anthrax occuring in sheeps and goats within this area . Bacteriological cultures of animal material confirmed the diagnosis . This report of human anthrax is the second one coming from Ivory Coast Republic but the first one from the western Africa forest belt.

J Clin Microbiol, 1984 Sep, 20(3), 357 - 61
Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent and indirect hemagglutination assays for determining anthrax antibodies; Johnson-Winegar A; An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay has been established to measure anthrax antibody titers . The protective antigen component of anthrax toxin was used as the capture antigen . Two types of conjugates (protein A-horseradish peroxidase and anti-human immunoglobulin G plus immunoglobulin A plus immunoglobulin M-horseradish peroxidase) were tested . Results from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing were compared with those from indirect hemagglutination titers on serum from vaccinees . The overall trend of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and indirect hemagglutination titers was significant . The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay offered speed, precision, and reduced cost per test.

Vaccine, 1984 Jun, 2(2), 125 - 32
Anthrax: the disease in relation to vaccines; Hambleton P et al.; The authors trace the origins and history of anthrax and anthrax vaccines . They describe the aetiology and pathogenesis of the disease and the variety of symptoms which result from infection . The authors relate the early work performed by Pasteur, the development of existing vaccines and the efficacy of these vaccines, and predict the type of non-living vaccines which may be used to combat anthrax in the future.

Sci Total Environ, 1984 Mar 1, 34(1-2), 143 - 56
Indirect effects of soil and water on animal health; Horvath DJ et al.; Some variations in animal health among geographic areas are associated with variations in soils, water supplies or soil parent materials . Geochemical bases for health problems arising from essential nutrient element deficiencies or from toxic levels or imbalances of several elements are widely recognized . Less attention has been directed to the possibilities of geochemical influences upon regional differences in health resulting from pathogens, parasites, mycotoxins and poisonous plants . This review is an effort to collect and interpret such evidence as has been published on the subject since Louis Pasteur's original observation associating soil character and probability of anthrax.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1984 Jan, (1), 90 - 5
{Mapping method in the epidemiological study of infections and infestations . II . Soil characteristics in localities permanently at risk for anthrax}; Kas'ianenko AM et al.; Investigations carried out with the use of the mapping method have revealed that the distribution of localities with stationary unfavorable situation in anthrax throughout the area is linked with the agrochemical properties of soils . The number of the foci of anthrax on neutral and weakly alkaline soils has proved to be considerably higher than in soils with low pH values . No relationship between the content of humus in soils and the distribution of localities with stationary unfavorable situation in anthrax throughout the area has been detected . The results of investigations carried out with the use of the mapping method permit experts to make forecasts and to examine the ecological aspects of the projects carried out in the area.

Vet Med Nauki, 1984, 21(2), 35 - 9
{Quantitative methods of assessing the severity of an epizootic situation}; Elitsina P; n order to evaluate the epizootic status of a particular territory for a given moment or a period of time with regard to the infectious diseases one has adopted Tarshis ' formula . The present work deals with the comparative approbation of this formula, using a modified formula in which a parameter characterizing the intensity of the epizootic process was introduced . The epizootic situation and its severity was determined by the two formulas for each district of the country with regard to the following infectious diseases: gangrenous mastitis and listeriosis of sheep, swine erysipelas, and anthrax of all kinds of farm animals--all for the 1970-1981 period . A categorization of the districts is effected according to the values obtained . It was found that the modified formula is important for the objectivization of the severity of the epizootic status as it reflected also the territorial spread and intensity of the epizootic process.

Mikrobiyol Bul, 1983 Jan, 17(1), 1 - 10
{A review of 35 anthrax cases}; Doganay M et al.; Of 35 cases diagnosed as anthrax during 1.9.1981 - 1.12.1982, 18 were females (51,4%) and 17 were males (48,6%), the mean age was 39,7 . All of the women were housewives, 14 male patients were farmers, 1 was a tradesman, 1 a worker, and 1 a butcher . It was localised on the skin in 31 cases (88,6%) and in the throat in 4 cases (11,4%) . Penicillin was used for treatment . In one of the cases with throat localisation, sepsis developed, leading to death.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1982 Jul, (7), 73 - 6
{Cytochemical changes in the peripheral blood leukocytes of guinea pigs inoculated against plague, tularemia and anthrax}; Safronova VM et al.; The immunization of guinea pigs with trivaccine and monovaccines against plaque, tularemia and anthrax induces a decrease in the activity of acidic phosphatase in lymphocytes, as well as a decrease in the number of lymphocytes containing this enzyme . A decrease in the activity of alkaline phosphatase and peroxidase had been found to occur in neutrophil leukocytes . Besides, neutrophil leukocytes have shown an increase in the activity of acidic phosphatase and nonspecific esterases . The study based on the evaluation of the activity of the above-mentioned enzymes in lymphocytes and neutrophils has not revealed the predominant influence exercised by any of the antigens, different in their nature and used separately or in the form of a combined preparation, on immunogenesis.

Zentralbl Chir, 1982, 107(5-6), 251 - 9
{Robert Koch; man and work (author's transl)}; Schmitt W; The paper presents a brief survey of Robert Koch's brilliant achievement in medicine, with particular emphasis being placed on his discovery of the tubercle bacillus made known on 24th March, 1882, his information about the aetiology of anthrax in 1876, and the pathogens of wound infection (1878), as his most valuable contributions to medical research and practice . Robert Koch can truly be regarded as one of the great benefactors of mankind . He was a genius endowed with spiritual and practical abilities allowing him to rise from a simple practioner to a scientist of world-wide fame and recognition . In 1905 Robert Koch was awarded the Nobel-prize, he died in 1910 from a heart attack.

Vet Med (Praha), 1981 May, 26(5), 279 - 90
{Immunogenic effect of anthrax protective antigen}; Prokupek K et al.; In experimental immunization of sheep and goats against anthrax the vaccine containing our own protective antigen (PA) whose serological activity was evaluated by the titre 1:16 was used . PA was adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide gel at the ratio 30 parts of gel and 100 parts of antigen . In the control experiment the doses of the virulent anthrax strain were as follows: 10(6) (sheep) and 5.10(6) (goats) . The single vaccination provided only 60% protection, the repeated 100% protection . By the titration of antibodies of the vaccinated animals was proved that the peak titres (1:80 to 1:160) were reached two months after vaccination . Then the titre decreased gradually, and in approximately two months' time it returned to the initial value . As apparent from these experimental results, a reliable protection by PA vaccine can be achieved only by double immunization, best at 14-day intervals.

Bol Med Hosp Infant Mex, 1981 Mar-Apr, 38(2), 355 - 61
{Human carbuncle (anthrax) Presentation of a case}; Cedillo Chimal JE et al.; A case of human anthrax in a 12-month-old child is presented . Most recent literature and pathophysiology of this disease was reviewed . Our attention was called upon patient's age, rarity of this disease in our country and mainly, the form of presentation which difficulted the clinical and laboratory diagnosis . It was characterized by the presence of pustules over the entire surface of the body, with respiratory and neurological manifestations . Diagnosis was made on the basis of cultures of skin lesions and treatment was done with sodium crystalline penicillin and later, potassium V penicillin . Progress was satisfactory and the patient was discharged after 24 days of hospital stay.

J Hyg (Lond), 1980 Dec, 85(3), 415 - 20
Anthrax . William Smith Greenfield, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor Superintendent, the Brown Animal Sanatory Institution (1878-81) . Concerning the priority due to him for the production of the first vaccine against anthrax; Tigertt WD; The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to the fact that W . S . Greenfield, working at the Brown Animal Sanatory Institution in London, prepared an effective vaccine against anthrax and described his results some months before the experiment of Pasteur at Pouilly-le-fort . Partly through lack of financial support and partly due to opposition by the antivivisectionists, Greenfield was forced to confine his experiments to a small number of animals, but his results were nevertheless conclusive . He showed that by continuous subculture in a fluid medium that the anthrax bacillus progressively lost its virulence, until it was harmless even to the most susceptible animal, the mouse . The injection of suitably attenuated organisms into cattle rendered them immune to the subsequent injection of virulent anthrax bacilli . Greenfield's work has been overlooked or neglected, and he has never received the credit due him . It is only fitting that his work should be acknowledged in the centenary of the year in which it was described . The following account is composed primarily of quotations from his published papers . For additional information on Greenfield, reference may be made to the series of papers by Wilson (1979 a, b) . It may be pointed out that the method of attenuating the virulence of bacilli recorded by Pasteur in relation to the bacillus of fowl cholera was, like that of anthrax vaccine, anticipated by Greenfield.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1980 Nov, (11), 105 - 7
{Case of recurrent human anthrax occurring several weeks after the primary disease}; Tsurkan AP et al.; The carbuncle was located on the back of the right hand in the primary anthrax infection and on the lower third of the right leg in the secondary infection . In both cases the diagnosis of anthrax was confirmed bacteriologically and by the anthraxin test . The course of the secondary infection was less severe . The conclusion on the possibility for rare cases of anthrax recurring has been made . This fact may be important for the assessment of immunity.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1980 Sep, 171(4-5), 455 - 8
{Survival of anthrax spores on surfaces (author's transl)}; Dietz P et al.; The survival of spores of Bac . anthracis on the surfaces of wood, resopal, aluminum, teflon, PVC, lacquered sheet metal and ceramics was investigated during a period of 987 days . Two figures are showing the logarithmical reduction rates of germ counts on these materials . The lowest reduction rates were found on wood, the highest on ceramics . On dark surfaces the reduction rate was not as high as on light ones . The increase of relative humidity from 35% to 45% seems to enforce th inactivation of the spores of Bac . anthracis.

Vet Rec, 1980 Jul 26, 107(4), 82 - 5
The effects of war on the control of diseases of livestock in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe); Lawrence JA et al.; The disruption of veterinary services in the tribal areas of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) during seven years of conflict resulted in serious epidemics of disease . The cessation of dipping was followed by the death of an estimated one million cattle from tick-borne disease . Heavy mortality followed the disruption of control measures for trypanosomiasis . Foot-and-mouth disease and anthrax spread widely in the tribal areas . Rabies, normally restricted to areas bordering Botswana and Mocambique, became widespread . A marked increase in human deaths from anthrax and rabies occurred.

Am J Epidemiol, 1980 Jul, 112(1), 23 - 31
Reporting of zoonotic diseases; Schnurrenberger PR et al.; Departments of public health and agriculture in all 50 states of the United States and the District of Columbia were queried in 1977 to determine which of some selected zoonoses are reportable, the method of reporting and the diagnostic stage at which reporting is required . Fifty-three of the 62 diseases on the public health questionnaire were listed as reportable, with hepatitis A required by 49 of the 51 jurisdictions . Telephone reporting was required in nearly 19% of the disease-jurisdiction combinations and, in nearly 55%, reporting was required when the disease first was suspected . Thirty-three of the 41 diseases on the agriculture questionnaire were reportable, with anthrax most frequent . Telephone reporting was required in 30% of the reportable situations and suspected diagnoses were reportable in 54% . The disease lists varied markedly between the public health and agriculture agencies.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1980 Apr, (4), 91 - 5
{Optimization of anthrax vaccination on the basis of rational classification of populated sites}; Shliakhov EN et al.; The improved epidemiological situation requires the proper revision of the tactics used in vaccinating the population against anthrax . The important task lies in the optimization of the immunoprophylaxis of the rural population in accordance with the epizootologic situation in a given locality . To ensure correct orientation in choosing the groups of population to be vaccinated a rational classification of inhabited localities is proposed: they are classified as anthrax-free and anthrax-affected, and the latter fall into manifest, conditionally manifest, nonmanifest and unclassified . The use of the cartographic method based on this classification is recommended . The proposed vaccination tactics will allow to reduce the number of persons covered by immunoprophylaxis by 70-75%, making this coverage more exact, and to improve the epidemiological effectiveness of vaccination.

Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales, 1980 Jan-Feb, 73(1), 23 - 8
{A focus of human and animal anthrax in the area surrounding Kati (Republic of Mali)}; Simaga SY et al.; Followed of one human and animal anthrax in the circle of Kati (Republic of Mali), 1978 . This localized affection interested 84 men and 38 domesticated animals . The preventive dispositions of infection and damming in of transmission are considered.

Arch Exp Veterinarmed, 1980, 34(1), 119 - 22
{Preparation, control and application of anthrax vaccine in USSR}; Romanov GI; Reported in this paper are the preparation, testing and application of two live vaccines against anthrax in the USSR . They were STI live vaccine in liquid and lyophilised forms and GHKI live vaccine in lyophilised form . Official tests for purity were conducted, using growth factors of cultures, whereas harmlessness was tested on rabbit and effectiveness on guinea-pig and later on sheep, after some five years had elapsed . Quantitative methods by which to test the effectiveness of VGNKI are now being prepared . Immunisation for prophylaxis or emergency are undertaken, depending on epizootiological situations . Major importance is ascribed to keeping, feeding, general nutrition and performance, latent infections, and meteorological factors which can all be of impact on immunogenicity and postvaccinal complications . Anthrax has been eliminated in the USSR, with only few sporadic outbreaks left, owing to immunisation and complementary action in veterinary hygiene.

Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 1979 Oct 15, 104(20), suppl 4:212 - 28
Veterinary experiences as a Japanese prisoner of war and ex-POW along the Burma railroad from 1942 to January 1946; van der Schaaf A; As a prisoner of war the writer was working for nearly three years in different POW camps, and outside them, along the Burma railway from Thanbyuyzat in southern Burma up to Kanchanabury in Thiland . In the army of the Netherlands-Indian archipelago (KNIL) he had the military rank of reserve horse-doctor . In civilian life he was attached to the Veterinary Institute in Buitenzorg(now Bogor) as a veterinary bacteriologist . His task as a POW became that of meathygienist and supervisor of the living animals in the camps . In this function he diagnosed swine fever in growing pigs which had mainly been fed on the offal of the Japanese kitchen . The acute course and the pathological alterations observed during the post-mortem examinations were identical with those of the Southern-African type of the disease . In slaughter cattle the author diagnosed some cases of lung tuberculosis, one of anthrax, several of rinderpest, some of rhinal granulomatosis and one of foot and mouth disease . In chickens he found NCD (pseudo-fowlpest) and in ducklings a mortal disease which the author then called 'keeling disease' but which he many years later, recognized as virus hepatitis . As assistant bacteriologist and ex-POW he joined the British regimental hospital in Bangkok . Here he had the apportunity to assist the bacteriologist pathologist, Maj . C . R . Peck IMS/IAMC in diagnosing the first case of melioidosis in an ex-POW of the KNIL who died from the sub-acute infection, notwithstanding treatment in the hospital with sulfa-drugs and penicillin.

Vet Med (Praha), 1979 Apr, 24(4), 217 - 24
{The anthrax-protective antigen and its preparation}; Prokupek K et al.; The authors describe a comparatively simple method of the preparation of an anthrax protective antigen and its evaluation . Attention is drawn to many obstacles that may arise during its production and emphasis is laid on the fact that the serological activity of the protective antigen should not be overestimated.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig A}, 1979 Mar, 243(1), 119 - 24
Specific staining of bacilli by means of immuno-indian-ink method and immunofluorescent method; Tomov A et al.; The possibilities for identification of B . anthracis are investigated by means of the Immuno-Indian-ink method (IIIM) and the immunofluorescent method (IFM) in their direct and indirect modifications . The specifity of sera against noncapsulated cells of B . anthrasis increases by their adsorption with antigenically related strains of B . cereus as their vegetative cells and spores are killed beforehand with performic acid . Repeated uses of the bacillus suspension for adsorption is possible by treating it with hydrochloric acid in order to restore its antigenic properties . The adsorbed sera against noncapsulated cells of B . anthracis in the direct and indirect modifications of IIIM and IFM stain specifically the 19 investigated B . anthracis strains but none of the 152 strains of saprophytic bacilli . In addition to that the possibility for differentiation of B . anthracis from saprophytic bacilli is established also by combination of cultivation on selective medium, facilitating the capsule formation of B . anthracis with IIIM and IFM, performed with sera against capsule antigens of the anthrax agent.

Scand J Infect Dis, 1979, 11(3), 203 - 6
Anthrax in children: a long forgotten, potentially fatal infection; Manios S et al.; After a brief account of anthrax morbidity in northern Greece in recent years, 4 cases in 1977 of cutaneous anthrax in 10 to 13-year-old children are presented . Two had an atypical cutaneous lesion . In 1 of these, a 13-year-old girl, the disease was complicated by severe, eventually fatal meningitis . Death ensued despite intensive treatment with high doses of penicillin and hydrocortisone . This case is the first report of anthrax meningitis in a child in Greece and the third reported in the last 15 years . We stress the diagnostic difficulties in atypical cases of cutaneous anthrax and the need for early diagnosis and treatment to avoid spread of infection and appearance of complications such as the usually fatal meningitis.

Med Trop (Mars), 1979 Jan-Feb, 39(1), 91 - 6
{Late aspects of palpebral anthrax (author's transl)}; Chovet M et al.; Report of 5 cases of palpebral anthrax treated after the acute phase, in a cicatricial or precicatricial stade . The authors recommend to delay plastic surgery up to three months and to select total skin graft for upper eye-lid and pediculed skin flap for lower eye-lid.

Vet Med Nauki, 1979, 16(9), 29 - 32
{Sporulation of anthrax bacilli}; Bozhilov BM et al.; Studies on Bac . antharcis sporulation were carried out . By modifying the medium of Kim et al., it was proven that 10 out of the 13 Bac . antharcis strains studied sporulated until the 72d h more than 99% . The remaining 3 strains sporulated more slowly . It was established that the nutrient medium could not ensure optimal sporulation conditions for all strains . The fact that the capsuleless vaccine "Ihtiman" sporulates 100% at the 24th to the 48th h is of considerable importance . The cultivation of this strain on synthetic medium does not change its immunogenic properties . No reversion to its primary state of virulence was observed.

Int J Zoonoses, 1978 Dec, 5(2), 69 - 74
Human anthrax in Iran: an epidemiological study of 468 cases; Parvizpour D; The study of 468 cases of cutaneous anthrax admitted to the Firoozabadi Hospital during the 13 years show that 59.83% of cases were male and 40.17% female . 42.93% of patients were below the age 30 . As occupational background concerned 27.86% belongs to industrial workers . On the other hand 20.73% of cases have contracted the disease through contact with sick animals whereas 74.24% have the history of contacts with animal products and 5% have infected due to the use of spidab . All patients were treated by penicillin or other antibiotics . 78 cases having massive oedema were additionally treated with cortisone . The death rate was slightly higher in females when compared with males.

Ann Sclavo, 1978 Nov-Dec, 20(6), 907 - 19
{Malignant pustule in province of Milan, Italy (author's transl)}; Gelosa L; Preliminary the statistical data are reported about human malignant pustule denounced in Italy in different Districts, in Lombardia and in Province of Milan . Correlatively the outbreaks and cases of haematic anthrax in animals declared in Italy, in different Districts, in Lombardia and in Province of Milan . Then the outbreaks of malignant pustule in Province of Milan are related in 1975-1977 period in the resident population where is considerable concentration of the leather manufactures . The epidemiological and microbiological researches have determined the relation among the outbreak of malignant pustule and the working of the hides imported from African Countries (Nigeria, Tanzania, Ethiopia, South Africa, Burundi-Kenya, Uganda) containing the spores of b . anthrax . The spores besides to cause infections of the workmen employed in the hide manufacture (industrial anthrax) through the effluents and solid refuses from the tanneries, are dispended upon the tiled ground and determine outbreak the haematic anthrax in the animals and agricultural coutaneus anthrax in the men.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1978 Sep, (9), 42 - 6
{Standardization of the seeding material in producing live anthrax vaccine}; Gladus MA et al.; Technology of obtaining dry concentrated seeding material of the anthrax bacillus STI-1 vaccine strain was worked out . The use of dry seeding material for making dry anthrax vaccine rendered the preparations obtained more standard, reduced the time required for their production, led to increase of AKM-SH productivity, and to greater profitability of the vaccine production . The vaccine preparations obtained with the use of dry seeding material did not differ from control by immunogenicity.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1978 Aug, (8), 72 - 6
{Experimental immunologic study of a protective anthrax preparation}; Vylchev V et al.; Rabbits and sheep immunized with protective anthrax preparation and live anthrax vaccines were examined . Protective anthrax preparation caused changes characteristic of general immunomorphology and immunomorphological reaction of the humoral type . A marked resistance in infection with the virulent anthrax culture was revealed in the animals immunized with this preparation and in those--with live vaccines . Skin allergic reactions were more intensive in sheep immunized with live Ikhtiman's vaccine; there was no reaction in the animals immunized with the protective preparation.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1978 Jun, (6), 81 - 4
{An index of blood neutrophil injury in man and animals immunized with live anthrax vaccine}; Shentsev IV et al.; The authors present the results of study of the blood neutrophil injury in guinea pigs, rabbits, monkeys, and also humans inoculated subcutaneously with live anthrax vaccine . Along with intradermal test with anthraxin, the mentioned test is suggested to assess the immunological status of persons immunized with anthrax vaccine.

Med Trop (Mars), 1978 May-Jun, 38(3), 281 - 5
{Permanence of the endemy of human anthrax in Lower Casamance (author's transl)}; Puech J et al.; Comments on 3 new cases from a well delimitated area with regard to the cases previously reported in Senegal.

Med Trop (Mars), 1978 May-Jun, 38(3), 279 - 80
{A Dahoman case of human anthrax (author's transl)}; Aubry P et al.; Report of typical case of anthrax of the lid in a dahoman shepherd, and brief survey of the endemy in west Africa.

Med Trop (Mars), 1978 May-Jun, 38(3), 270 - 6
{Human anthrax in Tougan district (Upper-Volta) (author's transl)}; Bloas JY; 23 cases of human anthrax observed in a limited district of Upper-Volta are reported with comments on clinical and epidemiological features and treatment.

Dev Biol Stand, 1978, 41, 349 - 60
{Combined vaccines in veterinary medicine in the developing countries}; Provost A et al.; It is in the interest of developing countries to have combined vaccines in veterinary medicine, not so much because they reduce production costs, but rather because they increase convenience and efficacy concerning the logistics of prophylactic projects in the field, thus lowering the cost of these projects . Their drawbacks are basically due to the biological compatibility of immunogens (possible immunosuppression by some viruses) and to the interaction of the various components when mixed, or when lyophilization is carried out . Some examples of such associations of vaccines are: (1) cattle plague + pleuropneumonia and possibly anthrax, (2) anthrax + blackleg, (3) sheeppox + anthrax, (4) pleuropneumonia + blackleg, (5) Newcastle disease + fowlpox + fowl typhoid, (6) fowl typhoid + chicken pasteurellosis . Practical results have been most positive and include the eradication of cattle plague - a major scourge of almost all of the African continent - and control over peripneumonia as a first step towards its eradication.

Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 1978 Jan 1, 91(1), 5 - 9
{Diagnosis of anthrax and para-anthrax with reference to immunofluorescence technic}; Dickel H et al.; 504 diagnostic samples were subjected to a fluorescence serology and culturah test for black quarter and malignant oedema . In 459 cases (91.1%) the results of both testing methods wede identical . 26 first results were made by culture (14 X malignant oedema, 12 X black quarter) . 19 results (14 malignant oedema, 5 X black quarter) were obtained by immuno-fluorescence only . Culture was shown to be not significantly better than fluorescence, especially in determining black quarter . In the diagnosis of black quarter and malignant oedema the combination of immunofluorescence with culture can be considered as the optimal testing method available at the present time, in that by this method there would be no need for an additional diagnostic test on the animal.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1977 Sep, (9), 41 - 5
{Immunological properties of the preparations of the anti-anthrax antigen}; Shliakhov EN et al.; The results of examination of immunological properties of the preparations of anthrax protective antigen on laboratory animals (guinea pigs) confirmed the efficacy of using the lactic-peptone medium for obtaining the anthrax protective antigen . Incubation for 18 hours at 37 degrees C of the strain-producer (STI-1) and a double immunization scheme with the antigen obtained proved to be the most rational conditions for inducing the immunological response in the vaccinated laboratory animals . Three fractions of the anthrax protective antigen obtained possessed weaker immunobiological properties than the whole preparation of this antigen.

Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 1977 May 1, 102(9), 579 - 80
{A case of anthrax in a dog (author's transl)}; Eil H et al.; A case of anthrax in a dog is described . The origin of infection, clinical symptoms and post mortem changes are discussed . B . anthracis was found in the carbuncle of the stomach wall, mesenterial lymphnodes, blood, liver and kidney.

J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1977 Feb 1, 170(3), 327 - 33
An epizootiologic study of anthrax in Falls County, Texas; Fox MD et al.; In June and July, 1974, an anthrax epizootic in Falls County, Texas, resulted in the death of 236 animals (228 cattle, 5 horses, 2 mules, and 1 pig) on 48 premises . Death rates were highest for horses (18.2%) and bulls (16.8%) . The epizootic was apparently precipitated by drought, and infection appeared to be the result of ingesting intrinsically contaminated soil and grass . Human illness was not associated with the epizootic.

Am J Med, 1977 Jan, 62(1), 130 - 2
Survival of a patient with intestinal anthrax; Nalin DR et al.; A patient with intestinal anthrax, the first documented surviving patient to be described in detail, presented with an acute condition within the abdomen . Intestinal anthrax should be considered in the differential diagnosis of abdominal conditions in areas in which anthrax is prevalent, especially when a history is available of ingesting putrid or improperly cooked meat . Clinical and therapeutic details are given as a guide in future cases.

Acta Neuropathol (Berl), 1976 Dec 21, 36(4), 339 - 45
Anthrax meningitis . Report of two cases with autopsies; Pluot M et al.; The authors report two cases of occupation-related anthrax meningitis; one was direct contamination from a diseased animal; the second was due to handling of bone powder imported from India . The pathological pattern of involvement of the meninges and brain is described and discussed.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1976 Oct, (10), 94 - 8
{Preparation and study of the anthrax protective antigen . II . Development of test preparations for the assessment of the quality of anthrax chemical vaccines and of the antigens obtained at various stages of its preparation}; Kuz'mich MK et al.; A homogeneous anthrax protective antigen (from the ST-I strain) characterized by a high immunogenicity and stability was obtained . Hyperimmune, monospecific to this preparation antiserum was prepared . It is suggested that these preparations can be used for the assessment of the quality of the anthrax chemical vaccine and of the antigens obtained at various stages of its preparation.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1976 Jun, (6), 62 - 5
{Characteristics of the anthrax vaccinal strain STI-1 preserved for 30 years in the form of lyophilized spores}; Saltykov RA et al.; A study was made of the biological properties of the spore culture of anthrax vaccine strain STI-1 lyophilized in 1944 and kept for 30 years without any passages . This dry culture contained not less than 29% of live spores; the culture growth in the nutrient broth and on the agar medium was typical for the strain . Immunogenicity tested in experiments on guinea pigs and rabbits was not reduced and corresponded to that of the reference STI-1 vaccine.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1976 Apr, (3), 53 - 6
{Purification of a protective anthrax preparation}; Vylchev V et al.; An attempt was made to standardize conditions for obtaining a protective anthrax preparation . A technological scheme permitting to produce 80 mg of a purified lyophilized protective preparation with the activity of 32 immunizing units was applied . It was accepted that 1 IU was the minimal amount of the preparation which provided a survival with the mean time index of 3.0+/-0.5 of guinea pigs after a double immunization at an interval of 14 days . In vitro 1 IU also represented a minimal amount of the preparation which produced three precipitation lines (characteristic of the preparation) in immunoelectrophoretic analysis against the purified anthrax serum . Usually 1 IU in vivo and in vitro corresponded to 2.5 mg of this preparation.

Vet Med Nauki, 1976, 13(10), 11 - 9
{Effect of ultraviolet ray-irradiated autogenous blood on hematological indices in horses}; Bodurov N et al.; Comparative clinical and experimental investigations were carried out on 18 clinically normal horses . It was found that the single transfusion of in vitro UV-treated autogenous blood, following a previously described method, was tolerated well by horses and did not lead to any deviations from the normal indices . Under the effect of the treated blood there was an increase in the hemoglobin content, rise in the erythrocyte and leukocyte count with slightly expressed hyperleukocytosis and weak neutrophilia (simple regeneration of the blood) . The sedimentation of erythrocytes also showed higher rates as early as the first hour following the autohemotransfusion, remaining at the attained level up to the fourth day, while on the sixth day it again came back to the initial value . The contents of calcium and inorganic phosphorus rose, showing a slightly expressed shift to the physiologic level without reaching it . The changes in the phagocytic activity of the blood showed that the autohemotransfusion stimulates phagocytosis . Along with these effects the bacteriostatic titer of the blood, as recorded with the use of the anthrax bacillus as early as the first hour, and likewise favourably affected, the highest titers being observed at the 24th and 48th hour.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1976, (3), 76 - 81
{Production and study of anthrax antigen . I . Nutrient medium for production of native anthrax protective antigen}; Derbin MI et al.; The authors present the results of studies concerning the choice of nutrient bases and elaboration of a medium for obtaining anthrax protective antigen providing an active preparation . Filtrates of crude cultures obtained on the nutrient medium prepared of 3% hydrochloric hydrolyzate of fish flour, corn extract, glucose, sodium bicarbonate and mineral salts proved to be the most active . Tests for determination of usefulness of the culture fluids with the maximum content in them of the protective antigen are recommended.

Vet Med Nauki, 1976, 13(3), 42 - 6
{Indirect hemagglutination via glutaraldehyde-treated erythrocytes for determining anti-anthrax antibodies}; Siromashkova M; The so-called passive hemagglutination reaction is used in this country to determine the serum level of anthrax antibodies in immunized individuals . Use is made of an erythrocyte diagnostic means prepared from formalin- and tannin-treated sheep erythrocytes that have been sensibilized with a protective anthrax antigen . An attempt has been made to replace this means by another one obtained by treating the same erythrocytes with glutaric aldehyde . Comparative studies reveal that the new diagnostic means is equally effective in the passive hemaglutination reaction as is the classic method using formalin- and tannin-treated erythrocytes . The suggested method of erythrocyte treatment proves more feasible, and, according to preliminary data, the new diagnostic means has longer shelf-life.

Dev Biol Stand, 1976, 35, 395 - 407
{Combined vaccines including 1 or several anti-foot-and-mouth valences}; Fontaine J et al.; Combined vaccines are used for many human and animal diseases . However, we have very few examples of combinations containing anti-foot-and-mouth valence which would allow easy immunization against differnet diseases without additional handling . Until now foot-and-mouth vaccination has been applied simultaneously with anti-brucellic vaccination (Baldoni, Renoux), andi-anthrax (Nobili) and vaccination against swine fever and Aujeszky's disease (Lysenko) . During the last ten years we have particularly studied the association of anti-foot-and-mouth disease vaccines with anti-brucella and anti-rabies vaccines . We have shown the possiblity of combining these different antigens, either in classical aqueous vaccines in aluminum hydroxide, or in emulsified vaccines containing oily adjuvants . The anti-brucella valences may be agglutinogenic (H 38) or non-agglutinogenic (MacEwen 45/20) . The combined vaccines "rabies + foot-and-mouth disease" and "brucellosis + foot-and-mouth disease" can be produced on an industrial scale . For many years millions of animals have been successfully vaccinated in France by means of a combined "rabies + foot-and-mouth disease" vaccine.

J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1975 Nov 1, 167(9), 842 - 3
Epizootic of anthrax in Falls County, Texas; Young JB; An epizootic of anthrax in Eastern Falls County, Texas, killed at least 238 animals during a 6-week period ending July 31, 1974 . Infection appeared to be caused by the ingestion of contaminated soil and grass in the drought-stricken central Texas area . The participation of the Texas Department of Agriculture, the Texas National Guard, and other state agencies was of great assistance to the Texas Animal Health Commission in handling the epizootic and panic stricken public . Use of the unencapsulated Sterne strain spore vaccine was credited with preventing many livestock losses in the area . Contaminated city water was detected during the epizootic but human disease did not result.

Vet Rec, 1975 Oct 4, 97(14), 256 - 61
Anthrax in England and Wales 1963-1972; Hugh-Jones ME et al.; The records of confirmed anthrax diagnoses held by the bacteriology department of the Central Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, for the years 1963 to 1972 inclusive, were analysed . During this decade, 86 per cent of the 2944 deaths recorded were in cattle and 11 per cent in pigs, correlating significantly with the cattle and pig populations in England and Wales during this period . Also, the country could be separated into high and low prevalence counties for cattle anthrax . Norfolk and Somerset had higher than usual cattle deaths per farm ratios and the reasons for this are explored.

Clin Radiol, 1975 Oct, 26(4), 471 - 4
Radiological changes in inhalation anthrax . A report of radiological and pathological correlation in two cases; Vessal K et al.; The radiological changes in two cases of inhalation anthrax are correlated with pathological findings . The earliest radiological sign was widening of the mediastinum, followed by prominent lung markings with peribronchial infiltration due to pulmonary oedema and haemorrhage . Associated pleural effusions are common, and non-specific super-imposed pulmonary infiltration may also be present . Inhalation anthrax must be considered in any case of mediastinal widening in a patient coming in contact with imported animal products or with livestock in endemic areas.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1975 Sep, 0(9), 97 - 9
{Toxic properties of the exotoxin from anthrax vaccinal strain CTI-1 in an experiment on animals}; Lesniak OT; A study of sensitivity of various laboratory animals (guinea pigs, albino mice, Cricetus auratus W., albino rats and chick embryos) demonstrated that they all, excluding the latter, reacted by specific edema in response to the administration of the exotoxin produced by the vaccine strain CTI-1 . A quantitative characteristics of the activity of the preparation for albino mice was presented and a method permitting to determine the activity of the anthrax exotoxin in intradermal test on guinea pigs with a greater precision than the accepted one was elaborated.

Antibiotiki, 1975 Jun, 20(7), 617 - 23
{Study of the antagonistic action of actinomycetes on anthrax bacilli}; Kaliuzhnaia LD et al.; Capacity for the growth inhibition of the highly virulent causative agent of Siberia plague was studied with respect to actinomycetous strains from soil samples of the Ukraine . It was found that on nutrient media 88.4, 88.9, 88.1 and 93.4% of the isolates inhibited the growth of Bac . anthracis, Bac . cereus, Bac . mycoides and Tsenkovsky vaccine strain respectively . Representatives of very different taxonomic groups were found among the antagonistic actinomycetes . Clearance of the soil from Siberia plague bacilli stable to the outer effect with the help of the active strain L-721 of Act . chromofuscus was observed . The effect was chown in sterilized soil, not sterile soil and soil monolith.

J S Afr Vet Assoc, 1975 Jun, 46(2), 181 - 3
Some important parasitic and other diseases of lion, Panthera leo, in the Kruger National Park; Young E; Lions in the Kruger Park have been found affected by a variety of parasitic and other disease conditions, including trichinosis, filariasis, sarcoptic mange, pentastomiasis, echinococcosis, taeniasis, hepatozoonosis, anthrax, babesiosis and rickets . Six of these may be directly or indirectly transmissible to man or are, at least, closely related to human parasites or disease . Nine of these diseases, or closely related conditions, are also known to infect domestic animal species . The opposite may, of course, also be true--man and his domestic animals may, under certain circumstances, transmit certain diseases to lions, presumably sometimes with fatal results.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1975 Jun, (6), 92 - 96
{Ultrastructure of Bac . anthracis and Bac . cereus}; Shakhbanov AA; A study was made of the ultrastructure of Bac . anthracis and Bac . cereus (strains 1835 and 205) . There were established definite morphological differences between the bacilli under study . The cell wall was much thicker in the causative agent of anthrax, it was permeated by tubules; the surface of the wall was covered by a thick layer of osmiophilic material . The spore membrane of Bac . anthracis was multistratal in character; osmiophilic filaments were seen on the surface of exosporium . Fungoid processes from the cell wall were present in Bac . cereus (strain No . 205); intraplasmic membrane structures were considerably developed; a crystal located on the contralateral end of the cell was formed with the spore, both processes coinciding in time.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1975 Apr, (4), 93 - 5
{Use of protective anthrax antigen in agglutination reactions}; Siromashkova M et al.; The latex- and hemagglutination tests were applied to determination of the titres of anthrax antibodies in the sera of 982 immunized sheep . Monodispersive standard colur latex of polymethylmetacrylate and protective anthrax antigen was used in these tests . On the basis of the results of titration of control sera titres of anthrax antibodies over 1:16 in the latex- and hemagglutination tests were accepted as positive . There was revealed no difference between the sera of the immunized animals reacting positively in both tests (d = 1.87 less than delta = 2.94 at P = 0.95) . The difference between the positive titres determined in the latex-agglutination (55.78%) and hemagglutination (44.41%) tests was significant (d = 11.37 less than delta = 4.39 at P = 0.95) . Consequently, both tests could be used for the purpose of determination of anthrax antibody titres, but the latex-agglutination test was more sensitive of the two.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1975 Jan, (1), 85 - 8
{Preparation and comparative evaluation of experimental anthrax diagnostic sera in experiments on animals}; Kravets ID et al.; The authors present the results of studies on obtaining and comparative assessment of experimental anthrax diagnostic sera in experiments on various animals . Donkeys, sheep, horses, rabbits and monkeys (Papio hamadryas) were immunized with the STI-I vaccine by a single scheme . The activity of the obtained sera was tested in the diffuse precipitation reaction by the amount of the detected antibodies and the titre . The most active sera were obtained from donkeys and sheep: their titre was 5.5 and 4 times greater and amount of the detected antibodies 2.6--2 times greater than in the sera of horses used up to the present time as producers of diagnostic anthrax preparations . The least active sera were obtained from monkeys.

Ann Sclavo, 1975 Jan-Feb, 17(1), 102 - 14
{Dissociative phases and pathogenicity of different species of the Bacillus genus}; Candeli A et al.; The previously postulated hypothesis, according to which different species of the genus Bacillus show strictly similar morphological and biological properties when the same variants are considered, has been confirmed by the present research . The "S" (smooth) variants of the five studied species (B . anthracis, B . subtilis, B . cereus, B . megaterium, B . mesentericus) are all lethal, at the experimented dose, for mice, whereas the "R" (rough, "star-shaped" colonies) variant of the same strains of the same species are all not pathogenic for the same animals . Likewise the "S" variants of three species tested in guinea pigs showed to be pathogenic; particularly B . anthracis and B . subtilis were lethal, whereas B . cereus caused a black eschar like that one described in the cutaneous anthrax . The "RS" variant ("medusae head" surface colonies) is not pathogenic for mice and guinea pigs (even B . anthracis) if the tested strains are cultivated for years in ordinary solid nutrient media; the same morphological variants are strongly pathogenic (also B . subtilis), when the strains are recently isolated from infected animals . The similarity between the same "S" variants of different species is proved also by the protection given by anti-anthrax serum to animals infected by B . subtilis.

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