Vestn Akad Med Nauk SSSR, 1991, (2), 21 - 5 {Effect of acrylate industry wastes on the environment and the prevention of their harmful action}; Tikhomirov IuP; Acrylic and methacrylic++ acids and monomers as raw materials for production of polymers and copolymers are highly and extremely dangerous substances causing chronic intoxication . At low concentrations, acrylates and methacrylates++ have been found to produce not only systemic toxic, but embryotoxic effects . Manufacture of methacrylic++ and acrylic acids and monomers yields waste gases and waters that contain various acrylic compounds as impurities . The sewage treatment system introduced prevents the pollution of reservoirs with these compounds . High concentrations of acrylates and methacrylates are recorded in the sources of waste gases . It is required that fundamentally new waste--free technological processes for production of methacrylates++ and acrylates be designed and introduced and that the waste gas decontamination systems be improved in order to enhance the efficiency of measures to prevent environmental pollution. Acta Vet Scand, 1991, 32(2), 243 - 52 A case-control study of risk factors in light Taenia saginata cysticercosis in Danish cattle; Kyvsgaard NC et al.; Risk factors in light T . saginata cysticercosis in cattle herds were investigated in a case-control study . The case group consisted of farms from which cattle with low-grade cysticercosis had been detected at slaughter . The control group consisted of farms where no cases were detected during the same period . The major risk factor identified was allowing cattle access to drink from streams carrying effluent from sewage treatment plants (odds ratio = 3.6) . Spreading of septic tank sludge through deliberate or accidental mixing with animal slurry, deposition of sewage sludge, and proximity to railways, camping sites or sewage treatment plants seemed to be of minor importance. Bull Pan Am Health Organ, 1991, 25(3), 267 - 73 Cholera in the Americas; Evaluating the impact of municipal water fluoridation on the aquatic environment; Community Health Department, Lakeshore General Hospital, Pointe-Claire, Quebec, CanadaAlthough highly beneficial for dental health, low concentrations of fluoride in environmental waters may be toxic to several organisms . In an era of heightened public awareness about the environment, this may lead city officials to withhold implementing water fluoridation for environmental reasons . This paper presents a mass balance approach to evaluate this perceived risk . Generally speaking, fluoridated water loss during use, dilution of sewage by rain and ground water infiltrate, fluoride removal during secondary sewage treatment, and diffusion dynamics at effluent outfall combine to eliminate fluoridation-related environmental effects . In Montreal, water fluoridation would raise average aquatic fluoride levels in the waste water plume immediately below effluent outfall by only 0.05-0.09 mg/l . Downstream, these changes would be only 0.02-0.05 mg/l at 1 km, and 0.01-0.03 mg/l at 2 km below outfall . Overall river fluoride concentrations theoretically would be raised by 0.001-0.002 mg/l, a value not measurable by current analytical techniques . All resulting concentrations would be well below those recommended for environmental safety and would not exceed natural levels found elsewhere in Quebec . A literature review did not reveal any examples of municipal water fluoridation causing recommended environmental concentrations to be exceeded, although excesses occurred in several cases of severe industrial water pollution. J Pharm Pharmacol, 1990 Oct, 42(10), 741 - 2 Cytotoxic drugs and the aquatic environment: estimation of bleomycin in river and water samples; Aherne GW et al.; A radioimmunoassay has been used to determine levels of the anticancer drug bleomycin in sewage treatment works effluent, river and potable water samples . Samples were concentrated 100-fold by lyophilisation and a final limit of detection of 5 ng L-1 was achieved . Concentrations of immunoreactive bleomycin of between 11 and 19 ng L-1 were found in the effluents but a lower concentration range less than 5-17 ng L-1 was found in river and potable water samples . The risk to human health of ingesting water (in SE England) with such low levels of this cytotoxic drug appears to be minimal in relation to the normal chemotherapeutic doses administered (20-30 mg m-2). Antibiot Khimioter, 1990 Jun, 35(6), 40 - 3 {UV-irradiation in the technology of purification of sewage waters from antibiotic production plants}; Artamonov SI et al.; Methods used in purification of sewage from organic pollution with UV irradiation, oxidants (O2, O3, H2O2, NaClO-, KMnO4, ClO- and HOCl) and photosensitizers are discussed on the basis of the literature data analysis . Certain trends in promising studies on sewage treatment in manufacture of antibiotics were defined. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1990 Apr, 56(4), 913 - 8 Chromium(VI)-resistant yeast isolated from a sewage treatment plant receiving tannery wastes; Baldi F et al.; A Cr(VI)-resistant yeast, designated strain DBVPG 6502, was isolated from a sewage treatment plant receiving wastes from tannery industries in Italy . The strain was tentatively identified as a species of Candida based on morphological and physiological analyses . This strain was highly resistant to Cr(VI) when compared with eight other yeast species, growing at Cr(VI) concentrations of up to 500 micrograms/ml (10 mM) . This resistance was constitutive . The Cr(VI)-resistant yeast did not reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III) species under aerobic conditions . The yeast showed very little accumulation of Cr(VI) . Consequently, the mechanism of resistance of the yeast to Cr(VI) appears to involve reduced accumulation of Cr, as has been shown in Cr(VI)-resistant bacteria. Acta Vet Scand, 1990, 31(2), 159 - 68 Bovine cysticercosis in Denmark . A study of possible causes of infection in farms with heavily infected animals; Ilsoe B et al.; Epidemiological studies were made on 14 farms from which, during a 2 year period, 38 cattle had been condemned at slaughter, due to massive infections with Cysticercus bovis . By on-site investigations and interviews, attempts were made to identify the transmission routes of Taenia saginata eggs from human faeces into the environment and further on to cattle . The most frequent sources of infection were found to be sludge from septic tanks illegally applied on pasture or crops, in some cases after having been mixed with animal slurry . Animals in permanently housed herds were infected through the fodder or by contamination of the indoor environment by such slurry containing Taenia eggs . Other herds were infected by grazing pastures in close proximity to municipal sewage treatment plants . In contrast to earlier Danish observations, application on farmland of sewage sludge from municipal treatment plants was not involved in any of the reported outbreaks . This apparent change coincides with the implementation of more restrictive legislation for the agricultural use of sewage sludge in Denmark. Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1990, 145(5), 367 - 75 {The occurrence of Yersinia enterocolitica in sewage}; Ziegert E et al.; Using a modified cold enrichment procedure Yersinia spp . were detected in 90.6% out of 32 raw waste water samples obtained within one year from two municipal sewage treatment plants . Moreover Yersinia were isolated from 50% of 6 effluent samples . Altogether 118 Yersinia strains were isolated and typed biochemically and serologically . 69 out of these isolates belonged to Yersinia enterocolitica, 60 strains to biotype 1, and 9 to biotype 4, serotype 0:3, 8 strains Yersinia enterocolitica serotype 0:3, biotype 4, considered to be a causative agent in human enteritis, harboured an 48 MD plasmid . The remaining isolates were identified as Yersinia frederiksenii (24 strains), Yersinia intermedia (22 strains) and Yersinia kristensenii (3 strains) . The frequency of the isolation of Y . enterocolitica serotype 0:3, biotype 4 from sewage showed the same seasonal dependence as known from strains of human origin . In contrast to this, such dependence could not be found among other serovars of Y . enterocolitica and related species. Bull Inst Marit Trop Med Gdynia, 1990, 41(1-4), 149 - 55 Human pathogenic viruses in waters of Lake Zarnowieckie (north Poland); Towianska A et al.; The objective of the study was to determine the occurrence of viruses pathogenic to man in the Lake Zarnowieckie and its neighbourhood that is in the area that was to be terminally polluted by the nuclear power-station built there . In 1990, the construction of the power-station was given up, and it will not be finished . In 1986-1989, water samples were periodically collected from a number of sampling points in the Lake Zarnowieckie, the Piasnica river, and from the coastal water of the Baltic Sea . The total of 304 water samples were examined virologically, out of this number 51 (16.8%) showed a positive cytopathic effect in green monkey kidney cell culture GMK, indicating the presence of enteroviruses and adenoviruses . The isolated viruses were identified with the aid of serological neutralization reaction . Of the three types of enteroviruses, identified were: polio-serotypes 1, 2, 3--seven times (they were vaccine viruses probably, because poliomyelitis has almost been eradicated in Poland, the reported number of cases was from 0 to 4 annually), coxsackie B-2, 3, 4, 5 serotypes-20 times; ECHO-4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 serotypes-22 times and adenoviruses-5 serotype-3 times . Obtaining viruses from the majority sampling points of the Lake Zarnowieckie testified for their wide spread in waters of the lake . Isolation of coxsackie B and ECHO in spring and autumn, and polio and adenoviruses in summer suggested the seasonal character of their occurrence . The presence of enteroviruses in the water coming from the sewage treatment plant proved their not complete inactivation during the treatment process. Biomed Environ Sci, 1989 Jun, 2(2), 81 - 91 Morphological changes in the gills of tilapia fed sterilized and nonsterilized sludge; Liu WK et al.; The effects of digested sludge on the ultrastructure of gills of Sarotherodon mossambicus were investigated . Samples of digested sludge were collected from the Shatin Sewage Treatment Plant in Hong Kong and they were (1) sun-dried (NS) or (2) sterilized in an autoclave (SS) . They were then used as supplementary fish feed to cultivate the freshwater tilapia, S . mossambicus, for 50 days under laboratory conditions . The SS at low dosage (25%) had the lowest toxicity among different treatments . A swelling of lamellar epithelium, the enlargement of the the subepithelial space, the collapse of capillaries, and the infiltration of polymorphonuclear cells in the lamellae of fish gills were common to fish fed 50 to 100% NS and SS . The thickening of the basal lamina in the gill lamellae is a common feature found in the sludge-treated fish. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1989 Apr, 187(4-6), 271 - 94 {The success of hygiene in the last 40 years}; Thofern E; In Germany, the last period of the Second World War and the following years were characterized by deficiencies of hygiene which had not occurred previously in Middle Europe during the 20th century . There were focuses of typhus, typhoid fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and meningitis . Insufficiencies in the removal of faeces caused high incidences of shigellosis, hepatitis A, and ascariasis . As a result of insufficient body care, many people were infested with fleas, lice and scabies . The migration of large proportions of the population resulted in an increasing prevalence of syphilis an gonorrhea . As the population resettled, the first steps towards reorganization of public health could be done . The spread of typhoid fever was controlled by drinking-water disinfection with chlorine, repair of sewage systems, and patient isolation . The application of DDT helped to reduce scabies and pediculosis, resulting in decreasing typhus risks . During the first two decades after the war, there was a steady decrease of the incidence of infectious diseases . The reconstruction of the towns resulted in improved housing conditions and a decreasing number of persons per housing area, reducing the intensity of physical contacts of the inhabitants with each other . The nutrition and clothing situation of the population improved, which, in addition to a general rise of the standards of hygiene, brought about an increase of the individual resistance to infection . A further reduction of sporadic and epidemic outbreaks of infectious diseases was achieved by the introduction of chemotherapy and antibiotics . Increasing prosperity was accompanied by new problems of hygiene . Infectious diseases almost eradicated in West Germany, were imported by air travellers . Ten imported cases of smallpox were reported between 1957 and 1972, eight of which originated from Southeast Asia . Malaria, imported by German and foreign soldiers, had not been uncommon after the end of the war but had been easy to control by insecticides and antimalarials . As tourism expanded, a new wave of imported malaria cases was reported . In West Germany there is, however, no more spread of the disease under present conditions, cholera caused similar problems . The 1961 cholera epidemic started in Southeast Asia and caused minor outbreaks in Mediterranean countries like Italy and Spain . A significant spread of the disease throughout Europe was prevented by generally high standards of drinking water and sewage treatment . Sporadic cases of typhoid fever were imported from countries with low standards of hygiene.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS) Microbios, 1989, 60(242), 35 - 43 Enumeration of Pseudomonas species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophages in domestic sewage; Sallal AK et al.; Domestic sewage in Kuwait is mainly treated by an activated sludge process . Pseudomonas species were enumerated at all steps of sewage treatment . About 98-99% reduction in the number of these bacterial species were found in the treated effluent compared with raw sewage, which indicates a rather efficient removal of Pseudomonas from sewage . Spherical tail-less phages of Pseudomonas aeruginosa were found in all sewage samples . About 25-85% of the total phages encountered with the raw sewage were retained in the treated effluents . Seasonal variations of Pseudomonas spp and P . aeruginosa phages in two treatment stations are reported. J Appl Bacteriol, 1988 Sep, 65(3), 203 - 8 Effects of sewage treatment on the removal of Listeria monocytogenes; al-Ghazali MR et al.; Two sewage treatment plants in Baghdad, Iraq, were investigated to assess the effects of the different treatment stages on the removal of Listeria monocytogenes . The bacteria were severely affected after the activation and digestion stages at both plants . A dramatic decrease in numbers of listerias after each of these two stages was noticed during the cold months (September-January) . The organisms were able to survive these treatments and were present in the final effluent and even in low numbers in the sewage sludge cake . Sufficient dewatering of sewage sludge is recommended to obtain sewage free of listerias . Improvements in the isolation procedure of L . monocytogenes from such heavily contaminated material is also discussed. Microbiol Sci, 1988 Sep, 5(9), 260 - 4 Removal of viruses in sewage treatment: assessment of feasibility; Lewis D et al.; The feasibility of enteric virus removal during sewage treatment is addressed as the reasonableness of removal expectations based upon the purpose to be served and the treatment to be used . Feasibility is considered to be three-dimensional, with technical, economic and societal facets. Antibiot Khimioter, 1988 Aug, 33(8), 581 - 7 {Intensive methods of sewage treatment}; Karpukhin VF et al.; The results of the study on intensive treatment of sewage are presented and the general approach to it is proposed . Formation of oxygen active forms in biological systems, their generation during physico-chemical treatment under definite conditions and interaction with organic substances provide higher purity levels in treatment of sewage. Arch Environ Health, 1988 Jul-Aug, 43(4), 263 - 8 Neurotoxic effects of solvent exposure on sewage treatment workers; Kraut A et al.; Nineteen Sewage Treatment Workers (STWs) exposed to industrial sewage that contained benzene, toluene, and other organic solvents at a primary sewage treatment plant in New York City (Plant A) were examined for evidence of solvent toxicity . Fourteen (74%) complained of central nervous system (CNS) symptoms consistent with solvent exposure, including lightheadedness, fatigue, increased sleep requirement, and headache . The majority of these symptoms resolved with transfer from the plant . Men working less than 1 yr at Plant A were more likely to complain of two or more CNS symptoms than men who were working there longer than 1 yr (p = .055) . Objective abnormalities in neurobehavioral testing were found in all 4 men working longer than 9 yr at this plant, but in only 5 of 15 employed there for a shorter period (p = .03) . These results are consistent with the known effects of solvent exposure . Occupational health personnel must be aware that STWs can be exposed to solvents and other industrial wastes. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1988 Jul, 49(7), 346 - 50 Health status of a group of sewage treatment workers in Toronto, Canada; Nethercott JR et al.; Fifty randomly selected workers in a sewage treatment plant using a heat treatment method for processing sewage sludge in Toronto, Canada were assessed . This investigation revealed that many workers reported "influenza-like" symptoms, cough, sputum production, wheezing, sore throat and skin complaints . The workers tended to have somewhat reduced lung function . Workers in the area of the plant where boiled sewage sludge was dried frequently reported an intermittent, acute illness characterized by cough, fever and sore throat . Workers in the area of the plant where the dried sludge was incinerated tended to have reduced lung function . The basis for the possible health effects demonstrated has not been established, and further investigation is suggested . The mean level of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) detected in the workers' serum was 6 +/- 5 ppb . The PCB levels could not be related to symptoms or clinical findings in the workers studied. Comp Biochem Physiol C, 1988, 89(2), 395 - 402 Chromosome aberrations in cultured central mudminnow heart cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sediment extracts; Walton DG et al.; 1 . Genotoxicity experiments were conducted with cultured fish cells to determine if the high frequency of epidermal papillomas observed in lemon sole from Sturgeon Bank, where a sewage treatment plant discharges, could be correlated with contamination of the sediments with chemicals such as 3,4-benzopyrene . 2 . The frequency of chromosome aberrations was measured in cultured Umbra limi heart (U1-H) and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells following exposure to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 3,4-benzopyrene (BP), 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene (DBA), 1,2-benzanthracene (BA), and pyrene (PY), activated using S9 prepared from rainbow trout liver . 3 . An increase in the chromosome aberration frequency was only observed following exposure to fish S9-activated BP in both cell lines . 4 . Following exposure of the cells to both Sturgeon Bank and Spanish Bank sediment extracts, it was determined that a higher level of toxic and genotoxic activity was associated with the Sturgeon Bank sediments . 5 . Since the detection of PAH genotoxicity requires the presence of S9, and since a higher level of genotoxic activity was noted following sediment extract exposures with no S9 present, this suggests that the extracts contain a complex mix of chemicals, some of which express genotoxic activity . 6 . An assessment using the micronucleus test failed to indicate in vivo genotoxicity in fish collected from Sturgeon and Spanish Banks . 7 . It was, therefore, difficult to associate the observed sediment genotoxicity with the previously noted high incidence of epidermal papillomas in lemon sole from this area. Sci Total Environ, 1987 Oct, 66, 193 - 202 Reduction of mutagenicity of municipal wastewaters by land treatment; Hopke PK et al.; The disposal of complex mixtures such as wastewater on agricultural lands poses known and unknown environmental risks . Mutagens may be introduced into the ecosystem and perhaps concentrated by crop plants or leached into ground water supplies . The purpose of this study was to determine the biological effect of a mutagenic wastewater before and after application to soil . An XAD-8 methanol extract of wastewater from the municipal sewage treatment facility at Sauget, IL, was a potent, direct acting mutagen when assayed with Salmonella typhimurium . One and 3 ml of extract were brought up to 10 ml volumes with water and added to 10 g of sterile or nonsterile native clay loan . These mixtures were incubated at room temperature for 0, 24 and 48 h . After separation of solid and liquid portions by filtration, dichloromethane was added to extract the organic fractions from each component . Solvent extractions were evaporated to dryness under vacuum and brought up in DMSO . Tests for mutagenic activity were conducted using Ames strain TA98 . Addition to the soil for greater periods of time decreased the mutagenic activity . The solid component exhibited greater mutagenic activity than the liquid. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1987 Oct, 185(1-2), 171 - 82 {Quantitative studies of heterotrophic bacteria from two purification plants in Schleswig-Holstein}; Gerhardt GG; Saprophytic bacteria have been analysed as to their quantity during a one year period in all clarification steps of the sewage treatment plants of Plon and Kiel . The numerical amount of the bacteria varied between 10(5) and 10(10) per ml . They show extreme variations in the in- and outflow of the primary settling tanks . From the activated sludge tanks on the highest bacterial counts could be found . During July and August a distinct maximum appeared in the biological treatment, followed by a tremendous decrease in September and October . During this period bulking sludge appeared in the Kiel plant. Sci Total Environ, 1987 Sep, 65, 109 - 20 Study of the behaviour of mutagens in wastewater and emission gas from a municipal incinerator evaluated by means of the Ames assay; Kamiya A et al.; We have investigated the mutagenic activity of extracts from the wastewater of sewage treatment plants in municipal waste incinerators and evaluated the relative contribution of various routes of emission from the incinerator to the total output of mutagens . The mutagenicity of wastewater extracts from a complete combustion incinerator was 10% of that from an incomplete combustion unit . About 90% of all the mutagens produced in a municipal incinerator are discharged into the atmosphere as emission gases, and 10% are disposed of in the wastewater treatment plants . Most of the mutagens in wastewater treatment plants are not decomposed by normal aeration times, but are removed by adsorption onto suspended solids. Schweiz Med Wochenschr, 1987 Mar 7, 117(10), 354 - 8 {Demonstration of gram-negative bacteria and endotoxins in the air surrounding a sewage treatment plant: effect of contaminated aerosols on the health status of the staff}; Schira JC et al.; Data on airborne gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin contamination in a sewage treatment plant are reported and compared with data from similar plants in Scandinavia . Respiratory, digestive, and cutaneous symptoms were investigated on the basis of medical files . The contamination levels which can be considered safe are discussed in the light of the actual exposure of workers. S Afr Med J, 1987 Feb 21, 71(4), 244 - 8 Marine pollution and health in South Africa; Brown AC; Although the RSA does not have a serious marine pollution problem, rapid population growth and increasing industrialization make it imperative to assess the pollution status of coastal waters and to plan for future developments . All pollution on earth ends up in the sea, which consequently contains a mixture of substances, the effects of which on the biota and on human health are poorly understood . Many of these substances are accumulated by marine organisms and become ever more concentrated along the food chain; where man is at the top of the chain, he thus runs the greatest risk of all . Too much raw sewage is allowed to pollute the sea, the provision of sewage treatment plants being largely inadequate for the growing population . Notwithstanding the excellent work done by a number of South African organisations and individuals, and the sound basis of the country's anti-marine pollution legislation, a plea is made for greater co-operation between those whose expertise and/or official position would enable them to contribute to combating the problem. Am J Ind Med, 1987, 11(6), 615 - 25 Occupational factors associated with astrocytomas: a case-control study; Olin RG et al.; The most malignant form of all brain tumors is the supratentorial astrocytoma . Little is known about its etiology, but exogenous factors have been blamed . In this case-control study, 78 astrocytoma patients have been compared with 197 clinical and 92 population controls . An extensive questionnaire was used to gather information about occupational and residential environment exposure . Inquiries concerning groups of or individual chemicals elicited low rates of affirmative response, with negligible differences between cases and controls . However, the questions "working at an airfield" and "living near a petrochemical plant" indicated elevated risks in comparison with both control groups; so too did "living near a municipal sewage treatment plant." These results focus attention on exposure to organic compounds and should be considered together with similar findings in current research . No other occupation, branch of industry, or vicinity questions showed differences between cases and controls, with the exception of "living in the neighborhood of a paper mill or a saw mill," which gave moderately increased relative risks . A separate report gives the results from the nonoccupational part of the study. Mutat Res, 1986 Dec, 175(4), 237 - 42 Cytogenetic monitoring of petrochemical workers; Zhou XT et al.; The frequencies of chromosomal aberrations and sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in the peripheral blood lymphocytes of 360 persons, 180 workers in a petrochemical corporation and 180 appropriate controls, were studied . A significant increase in chromosomal aberrations and SCEs, compared to the control group, was observed in two sewage-treatment workshop workers; however, there were no significant differences between petrochemical workers from four workshops and a control group. Antibiot Med Biotekhnol, 1986 Jun, 31(6), 426 - 8 {Electrochemical treatment of the waste waters from the manufacture of endocrine preparations}; Faingol'd ZL et al.; An approach to intensification of biological treatment of industrial sewage containing liquid wastes of endocrine drug production is described . The most contaminated effluent of rectification columns is isolated from the general plant discharge and subjected to local treatment . The advisability and level of the local treatment in electrochemical sewage treatment were studied under laboratory conditions . At the current density of 220 A/m2, the process time of 10 min at pH 6.0 and the ratio of the local effluent to the general plant discharge of 1:30 the level of the sewage treatment was the following: 45-50 per cent by the chemical demand of oxygen and 50-60 per cent by the biological demand of oxygen in 5 days . The residual content of active chlorine did not exceed 14 mg/l . It was shown experimentally that during the sewage treatment there formed no compounds toxic for the activated sludge microorganisms. Environ Res, 1986 Apr, 39(2), 307 - 20 Simultaneous multi-instrumental monitoring of vapors in sewer headspaces by several direct-reading instruments; Barsky JB et al.; Simultaneous monitoring of the vapors in several sewer headspaces by three direct-reading instruments, the Century OVA flame ionization detector, a 10.2 eV H-Nu Photoionization Detector, and a Hydrogen Sulfide Ecolyzer revealed that the majority of condensable organic vapors in areas of the Metropolitan Sewer District of Cincinnati appeared to be saturated aliphatic organics, except during short, unpredictable episodes . The monitoring was performed in the wet well of a sewage treatment plant, in sewers near two chemical plants, and in three other different sewers . The approach outlined in this paper does not require the use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1986 Apr, 182(2), 202 - 14 {Air-borne microbes in the vicinity of sewage treatment plants}; Steuer W; Measurements of air-borne germs were conducted over one year at several sewage treatment plants with different loads and sewage treatment methods . The investigations were intended to show possible air-borne loads in the sewage treatment plants and their immediate vicinity, taking into account different climatic conditions . The results lead to the conclusion that neighboring residential areas or factories in the vicinity of sewage treatment plants are not exposed to air-borne hazards. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1986 Apr, 182(2), 120 - 30 {Quantitative studies of Salmonella at two sewage purification plants in Schleswig-Holstein}; Teitge E et al.; Quantitative Salmonella counts in different stages of the sewage treatment plants of Kiel (Bulk) and Plon in Schleswig-Holstein (FRG) were measured during a one-year-period . In weekly alternation the samples have been collected before and after each clarification step . Afterwards the Salmonella were analysed by a combined method (membrane-filtration, multistep enrichment, mpn) . The inflows of the plants contained Salmonella in 98% . The treatment plant of Bulk reduced the Salmonella numbers around 89% while a reduction of 97% could be found at Plon . The most important step of the treatment for this reduction was the final sedimentation . The chemical precipitation at Plon declined the Salmonella numbers around further 87% . According to the seasonal fluctuations of the temperature of air and water the Salmonella values increased or decreased, respectively . This tendency was more impressive than it could be expected looking at the seasonal epidemiology of salmonellosis . In spite of the existing of separate sewerage systems in both towns rain led to increasing volumes of sewage . During the warmer period of the year this effect resulted in counts above average, while in wintertime - possibly caused by dilution and the salinity by roadsalt very low Salmonella numbers could be found in both treatment inflows. J Appl Bacteriol, 1986 Mar, 60(3), 251 - 4 Detection and enumeration of Listeria monocytogenes in a sewage treatment plant in Iraq; Al-Ghazali MR et al.; Listeria monocytogenes was isolated from a sewage treatment plant in Baghdad, Iraq, at all stages of treatment . The treatment processes did not yield a sewage sludge cake or a final discharge free of listerias . The agricultural practice of using such sewage products as fertilizers could become a route of spreading the organism in Iraq, particularly by infecting animals that consume vegetation in fields spread with such sewage . Dewatering of sewage reduced the number of L . monocytogenes but long periods of exposure to sun would be needed to obtain a 'safe' sewage sludge cake. Sci Total Environ, 1986 Jan, 48(1-2), 13 - 31 Radio-iodine in thyroid glands of swans, farm animals and humans, also in algae and river water from the Thames Valley, England; Howe JR et al.; A highly sensitive counting system has been used to measure radio-iodine in environmental samples from the Thames Valley . Iodine-125 and occasionally iodine-131 have been found in the thyroid glands of most of the swans that have died on the River Thames, the River Wey and the Grand Union Canal, and in algae and water samples from the Thames and many of its tributaries . The presence of this activity is ascribed to the waste discarded into the drainage system by hospitals and research laboratories, reaching the rivers via the effluent from sewage treatment works . The Thames is used as a source of drinking water, particularly in London and its western approaches . Weed and water samples collected from river water abstraction points, reservoirs, tap water supplies, and animal water troughs fed from this supply all contained low levels of iodine-125 . The drinking water route can account for the iodine-125 found in the thyroids of farm animals from west Surrey and in a few people living in London . The amounts found constitute a trivial radiation dose to man and animals as they are far below the acceptable limit of exposure for man. Int J Environ Anal Chem, 1986, 26(3-4), 279 - 93 Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) in sewage sludges, soils and sediments: analytical determination and environmental safety considerations; De Henau H et al.; Linear Alkylbenzenesulphonates (LAS), a major anionic surfactant used in laundry products, can be measured specifically in the environment by instrumental analysis . In addition to a desulphonation-gas chromatography approach, a method based on high performance liquid chromatography has been developed . The main features of the methods are outlined, and LAS concentrations measured in sewage sludge, sediments and sludge amended soils are reported . Knowledge of usage volumes, sewage treatment practices and environmental transport and transformation mechanisms has been used to predict concentrations of LAS . These calculated concentrations were found to agree well with those actually measured in the environment . Both measured and calculated ambient concentrations of LAS are below those which could produce potentially adverse effects in representative surface water, benthic and terrestrial organisms. Experientia Suppl, 1986, 50, 55 - 65 Cadmium in sludges used as fertilizer; Davis RD; In intensively populated countries efficient sewage treatment is essential to protect river quality . An inevitable by-product is sewage sludge which has to be disposed of safely and economically . Utilisation of sludge as a fertilizer of agricultural land is the most economic disposal route for inland sewage-treatment works and also benefits farmers by providing a cheap manure . Much of the cadmium in wastewater is concentrated into sludge which consequently contains higher concentration of cadmium than soil does . It is impracticable to reduce cadmium concentrations in sludge below certain levels . When sludge is used on farmland rates of application must be controlled so that cadmium concentrations in soil never reach levels that could significantly contaminate food crops . Cadmium is a principal factor limiting the use of sludge on land . Nevertheless, it is a local problem since agricultural land in general receives more cadmium from aerial deposition and phosphatic fertilizers . The significance of accumulations of cadmium in soil depends mainly on its availability for crop uptake . Investigations are described which have attempted to identify and to determine the availability of forms of cadmium in soil . There is considerable research interest in cadmium in soil solution which is likely to be directly available for crop uptake . Another area of interest is the apparent disappearance of cadmium from sludge-treated soil . Soil analysis often cannot fully account for the cadmium added in sludge . Apart from the effect of soil conditions, especially pH value, crop uptake varies according to the particular crop examined . Highest concentrations of cadmium occur in tobacco, lettuce, spinach and other leafy vegetables . Using crop uptake data from field trials it is possible to relate potential human dietary intake of cadmium, on which hazard depends, to soil concentrations of cadmium, which can be controlled by regulating applications of sludge . This provides an objective basis for limits for cadmium concentrations in soils receiving sludge . Transfer of cadmium via farm animals to meat and dairy products for human consumption is thought to be minimal, even allowing for some direct ingestion of sludge-treated soil by the animals . Evidence from these and other investigations suggests that a loading rate limit of 5 kg Cd/ha (equivalent to a soil concentration of about 3.5 mg Cd/kg) affords adequate protection to the foodchain where sludge is used on agricultural land . More research work is needed to provide a basis for predicting the long-term availability of cadmium introduced to the soil in sludge. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1985 Dec, 182(1), 49 - 57 {Survival of Campylobacter jejuni in drinking water, river water and sewage}; Pickert A et al.; Campylobacter jejuni (C . jejuni) has not been found by us in raw sewage or anaerobically stabilized sludge . Therefore the survival of C . jejuni has been tested in drinking water, river water and sewage . A suspension of about 10(7) C . jejuni per ml was filled into dialysis tubes which were placed in wire baskets and exposed . Exposition to drinking water was done using two continuously perfused containers in the laboratory, whereas exposition to sewage and river-water was performed at the local sewage treatment plant . Viable C . jejuni numbers per ml were reduced to zero in drinking water during five days starting from 10(6)/ml, in about two days in river water, starting from 10(8)/ml, and one and a half day in untreated sewage, starting from 10(7)/ml . E . coli showed no significant reduction in any of the experiments . Survival of C . jejuni in water seems to be restricted to a few days . The concentration of oxygen or nutrients in the water seems to be without relevance, whereas the most significant variable is temperature, which in our experiments was highest in the sewage and lowest in the drinking water containers. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1985 Dec, 182(1), 39 - 48 {Formaldehyde resistance to gram-negative aerobic rods from municipal sewage water}; Hingst V et al.; In a municipal sewage works, a total of 30 sewage samples (19 from the inlet and 11 from the outlet of the sewage works) were analyzed for the quantitative and orientative qualitative content of microorganisms . With an incidence peak of the total bacterial count of greater than or equal to 1 X 10(6) cfu/ml in the inlet, both samples showed bacterial contents of 1 to 9 X 10(5) cfu/ml with use of MC agar and Endo agar . Fuchsin glistening colonies as well as the total bacterial counts on Sabouraud agar and Leifson agar as well as on kanamycin-esculin agar showed frequency peaks which were one power of ten lower . For pathogenic staphylococci, a distribution below the limit of detection (down to 9 X 10(3) cfu/ml) was found, and in a single case in the region of 10(4) cfu/ml . As a rule, the samples drawn from the outlet of the municipal sewage works showed values which were one power of ten lower than in the inlet . With admixture of formaldehyde in bacteriostatically active concentrations, colonies could still be cultured to a small extent with a final concentration of 0.03 weight % HCHO in the inlet, whereas values were below the limit of detection in all outlet samples . The differentiated Gram-negative aerobic rods were mainly representatives of the species Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas putida . In a modified quantitative suspension trial, only occasional Gram-negative rods in the inlet samples survived 30 min exposure to 0.5 weight % HCHO . In comparison, the results of the outlet samples showed a very much lower resistance to formaldehyde . The 11 strains isolated under these conditions could be classified under six species, including four Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains . Gram-negative rods which had previously tolerated a concentration of 0.12 weight % formaldehyde in the bacteriostasis revealed a raised resistance to formaldehyde only to an inappreciable extent under the conditions of the qualitative suspension trial . Overall, enhancements of resistance to formaldehyde such as we observed in isolates from hospital sewage could not be detected in bacterial strains isolated from the inlet or outlet of a municipal sewage works . The investigations carried out thus do not indicate that a quantitatively significant increase or a persistence of the resistance to formaldehyde is to be expected outside the actual hospital environment. Am J Public Health, 1985 Sep, 75(9), 1059 - 67 Industrial wastes and public health: some historical notes, Part I, 1876-1932; Tarr JA; This article has focused on the relatively low priority accorded industrial wastes compared to human wastes by the public health community in the period from 1876 through 1932 . The critical reason for this prioritization was the potential for acute health effects from human wastes as compared with the belief that industrial wastes had only indirect effects . State departments of health normally only responded to industrial wastes when they endangered the potable nature of water supplies or interfered with water and sewage treatment processes . Within the public health community, however, a relatively small group of interdisciplinary professionals argued for attention to the indirect health effects of industrial wastes and their impacts on the total stream environment . In conjunction with other groups interested in clean streams--such as sportsmen and manufacturers who required high quality process water--they pushed for a broader state legislative mandate in regard to pollution control . Some states created new bureaus or boards with responsibility for industrial wastes and the larger stream environment but the attack on industrial pollution remained limited in this period . The final significant development regarding industrial pollution and public health concerned the formulation by Streeter-Phelps of the Public Health Service of a theory of stream purification with a set of general quantitative indicators . This application was of particular importance in regard to the high-oxygen consuming nature of organic industrial wastes and the wide variety of effluents that existed . Industrial wastes constituted what Harvey Brooks, in his essay "Science Indicators and Science Priorities" calls a very "messy" research problem--one that does "not lend itself to elegant and widely applicable generalizations."(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) Appl Environ Microbiol, 1985 Mar, 49(3), 530 - 7 Metabolites and biodegradation pathways of fatty alcohol ethoxylates in microbial biocenoses of sewage treatment plants; Steber J et al.; The biodegradation of fatty alcohol polyglycol ethers was studied by analyzing the 14C-labeled intermediates isolated from the effluent of a model continuous-flow sewage treatment plant after dosage of either alkyl- or heptaglycol-labeled stearyl alcohol ethoxylate (SA-7EO) . In each case, uncharged and carboxylated (mainly dicarboxylated) polyethylene glycols constituted the most prominent metabolites . The results indicate that there is a faster degradation of the alkyl than the polyethylene glycol moiety and that there are two distinct primary degradation mechanisms acting simultaneously in microbial biocenoses: intramolecular scission of the surfactant as well as omega- and beta-oxidation of the alkyl chain . Characterization of the bulk of 14C-labeled metabolites as a homologous series of neutral and acidic polyglycol units and identification of several C2-fragments accounted for the depolymerization of the hydrophilic part of the surfactant by stepwise cleavage of ether-bound EO units; from additional degradation studies employing either neutral or carboxylated 14C-labeled polyethylene glycols as model metabolites, it was concluded that hydrolytic as well as oxidative cleavage of C2-units is involved . Most of the identified low-molecular-weight 14C-labeled acids suggest an ultimate degradation of EO monomers by the oxidative dicarbonic acid cycle or the glycerate pathway or both . In addition, the finding of considerable amounts of oxalic and formic acids allow consideration of an additional mineralization route via glyoxylic, oxalic, and formic acids . The simultaneous action of different degradation mechanisms indicates the involvement of several distinct bacterial groups in the biodegradation of fatty alcohol ethoxylates under environmental conditions. Antibiot Med Biotekhnol, 1985 Jan, 30(1), 32 - 5 {Utilization of mycelial waste of antibiotic production in the technology of kilned construction materials}; Karpukhin VF et al.; At present the main part of the mycelial waste of antibiotic production is collected in sludge lagoones, discarded to the sewage treatment system or burnt . The mycelial waste is one of the causes of the environmental pollution . It contains a significant quantity of valuable substances, such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids . The inorganic portion of the waste includes the compounds of calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, silicium and phosphorus . The levels of the above substances in the mycelial waste allow using it as organic mineral additives in making expanded clay aggregate gravel with the use of low quality clay and loam . It may be also used as the burn-out of the raw material charge in making burnt bricks and other burnt building materials . By its calorific value the mycelial waste is equal to brown coal or peat . It was shown that the structural and mechanical properties of the mixtures of the mycelium and clay depended on the moisture content of the composition and the proportion of its components . The mycelial waste provided a decrease in the optimal temperature of burning by 40-50 degrees C . The production tests at the expanded clay aggregate plants showed that the bulk weight of expanded clay aggregate might be lowered by 50-100 kg/m3 and the usual additives with the use of petroleum products might be completely excluded from the technological process . The use of the mycelial waste for manufacture of burnt building materials provides saving of the fuel energy sources and improvement of the quality of the finished product . It is also important from the ecological viewpoint. Mikrobiol Zh, 1985 Jan-Feb, 47(1), 36 - 40 {The dynamics of the microorganism count of active sludge during the aerobic treatment of sewage}; Tsygankov SP et al.; Dynamics of the active sludge microorganism quantity is studied under different cultivation regimes . It is shown that quantity of microorganisms in different physiological groups depends on the specific growth rate, micro, determined by the dilution rate and biomass recirculation level . The results may be used for selecting optimal regime of the sewage treatment system functioning. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Sep, 48(3), 586 - 93 Dynamics of pollution-indicator and heterotrophic bacteria in sewage treatment lagoons; Legendre P et al.; The spatio-temporal dynamics of pollution-indicator bacteria and aerobic heterotrophic bacteria were studied in the sewage treatment lagoons of an urban wastewater center after 26 months of biweekly sampling at eight stations in these lagoons . Robust statistical methods of time-series analysis were used to study successional steps (through chronological clustering) and rhythmic behavior through time (through contingency periodogram) . The aerobic heterotrophic bacterial community showed two types of temporal evolution: in the first four stations, it seems mainly controlled by the nutrient support capacity of the sewage input, whereas in the remaining part of the lagoon, it seems likely that the pollution-indicator bacteria are gradually replaced by other bacterial types that are better adapted to this environment . On the other hand, the pollution-indicator bacteria showed an annual cycle which increased in amplitude at distances further from the wastewater source . The main events in this cycle were produced simultaneously at all stations, indicating control of these bacterial populations by climatic factors, which act through physical and chemical factors, and also through other biological components of this ecosystem (phytoplankton and zooplankton) . Finally, we use results from this study to suggest a modified design for a future study program. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 1984 Sep, 4(3), 305 - 21 Toxicologic studies associated with the agricultural use of municipal sewage sludge and health effects among sewage treatment plant workers; Babish JG et al.; The proposed use of municipal sewage sludges as soil amendments on agricultural land involves potential health risks . Sludges may contain toxic heavy metals, synthetic organics, and pathogens . Studies of animals inhabiting sludge-amended soils, or foraging on crops grown on such soils, have shown an increased deposition of cadmium and polychlorinated biphenyls in animal tissues, hepatic microsomal enzyme induction, altered blood profiles, appearance of mutagens in blood and excreta, and lowered feed intake, feed efficiency, and milk production . Epidemiologic evidence of possible adverse health effects among sewage plant workers exposed to aerosolized pathogens or synthetic organic vapors during wastewater treatment or land spreading of sludge is still inconclusive . Other possible deleterious environmental effects include pollution of groundwater and toxicity to birds consuming worms or insects inhabiting sludge-treated soils. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Jul, 48(1), 73 - 7 Effect of chlorination on antibiotic resistance profiles of sewage-related bacteria; Murray GE et al.; A total of 1,900 lactose-fermenting bacteria were isolated from raw sewage influent and chlorinated sewage effluent from a sewage treatment plant, as well as from chlorinated and neutralized dilute sewage, before and after a 24-h regrowth period in the laboratory . Of these isolates, 84% were resistant to one or more antibiotics . Chlorination of influent resulted in an increase in the proportion of bacteria resistant to ampicillin and cephalothin, the increase being most marked after regrowth occurred following chlorination . Of the other nine antibiotics tested, chlorination resulted in an increased proportion of bacteria resistant to some, but a decrease in the proportion resistant to the remainder . Multiple resistance was found for up to nine antibiotics, especially in regrowth populations . Identification of about 5% of the isolates showed that the highest proportion of Escherichia coli fell in untreated sewage . Some rare and potentially pathogenic species were isolated from chlorinated and regrowth samples, including Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis, Pasteurella multocida, and Hafnia alvei . Our results indicate that chlorination, while initially lowering the total number of bacteria in sewage, may substantially increase the proportions of antibiotic-resistant, potentially pathogenic organisms. J Appl Bacteriol, 1984 Jun, 56(3), 499 - 502 A note on salmonella excretion in the black headed gull (Larus ribibundus) feeding at sewage treatment works; Fricker CR; The range of salmonella serotypes found in sewage sludge and in the faeces of black headed gulls (Larus ribibundus) feeding on the sludge was investigated . A close association was demonstrated between the serotypes found in both types of sample . Salmonella takoradi (a serotype which is uncommon in Scotland) appeared in the sludge for two short periods during the twelve week study and on both occasions it was later found in the gull faeces . It was shown that gulls become infected after feeding on contaminated sewage sludge but that the infection is probably short-lived. Onderstepoort J Vet Res, 1984 Jun, 51(2), 141 - 4 Laboratory and field trials with two Bacillus thuringiensis var . israelensis products for Simulium(Diptera: Nematocera) control in a small polluted river in South Africa; Car M; The effects on Simulium adersi and S . hargreavesi larvae of 2 Bacillus thuringiensis var . israelensis products, the liquid formulation "Teknar" (Sandoz) and a powder formulation produced by the Ben Gurion University, Israel, were compared in the laboratory and in the Pienaars River . This river was heavily polluted with effluent from a nearby sewage works and contained 77 mg/l chloride . In the laboratory S . adersi and S . hargreavesi larvae showed 26; 48; 95 and 100% mortality 6 hours after a 10-minute application of 0,8; 1,6; 3,2 and 16 ppm "Teknar" in rain water . The powder formulation applied at 0,2; 1,0; 2,0 and 30 ppm resulted in a 7; 17; 35 and 100% mortality . In polluted river-water the mortality was 85% with 16 ppm "Teknar" and 80% with 30 ppm B . thuringiensis powder . In the field trials "Teknar" at 1,6 ppm and B . thuringiensis powder at 3 ppm did not cause any larval mortality at flow rates of 3 060 l/min and 2 040 l/min, respectively . However, 24 hours after application of the powder formulation, numbers of S . hargreavesi decreased significantly (P = 0,05) 20 m below the application point . A further 24 hours later, after "Teknar" had been applied, the numbers of S . adersi decreased and those of Chironomidae increased significantly . There was a significant increase in S . hargreavesi 200 m downstream after treatment with "Teknar". J Protozool, 1984 May, 31(2), 362 - 4 Detection of Giardia in sewage effluent; McHarry MJ; Giardia sp . cysts were found at levels of 4,000-450,000/378,500 liters (100,000 gallons) in sewage effluents from three of seven sewage treatment plants in Sangamon County, Illinois, in June, July, and August 1981 . Effluent from the positive plants is discharged into Lake Springfield (the present source of the city of Springfield's water supply) or the Sangamon River. J Infect Dis, 1984 Apr, 149(4), 640 - 2 The use of Moore swabs for isolation of Salmonella typhi from irrigation water in Santiago, Chile; Sears SD et al.; In Chile, a country with an exceedingly high incidence of typhoid, untreated sewage is applied directly to fields where salad vegetables are cultivated . Water used for irrigation was examined for the presence of Salmonella typhi, by making use of the sewer-swab technique . S typhi was isolated in 8 (11%) of 76 irrigation samples examined from nonindustrial, polluted water . This supports the hypothesis that crops grown with water contaminated with feces are important vehicles in the transmission of S typhi in this endemic area . Since sewage treatment plants will not be available in Santiago in the near future, emphasis is being placed on devising alternative methods of irrigation and on growing vegetables that are cooked before being eaten. Experientia, 1984 Feb 15, 40(2), 117 - 26 Cadmium - a complex environmental problem . Part II . Cadmium in sludges used as fertilizer; Davis RD; In intensively populated countries efficient sewage treatment is essential to protect river quality . An inevitable by-product is sewage sludge which has to be disposed of safely and economically . Utilisation of sludge as a fertilizer of agricultural land is the most economic disposal route for inland sewage-treatment works and also benefits farmers by providing a cheap manure . Much of the cadmium in wastewater is concentrated into sludge which consequently contains higher concentrations of cadmium than soil does . It is impracticable to reduce cadmium concentrations in sludge below certain levels . When sludge is used on farmland rates of application must be controlled so that cadmium concentrations in soil never reach levels that could significantly contaminate food crops . Cadmium is a principal factor limiting the use of sludge on land . Nevertheless, it is a local problem since agricultural land in general receives more cadmium from aerial deposition and phosphatic fertilizers . The significance of accumulations of cadmium in soil depends mainly on its availability for crop uptake . Investigations are described which have attempted to identify and to determine the availability of forms of cadmium in soil . There is considerable research interest in cadmium in soil solution which is likely to be directly available for crop uptake . Another area of interest is the apparent disappearance of cadmium from sludge-treated soil . Soil analysis often cannot fully account for the cadmium added in sludge . Apart from the effect of soil conditions, especially pH value, crop uptake varies according to the particular crop examined . Highest concentrations of cadmium occur in tobacco, lettuce, spinach and other leafy vegetables . Using crop uptake data from field trials it is possible to relate potential human dietary intake of cadmium, on which hazard depends, to soil concentrations of cadmium, which can be controlled by regulating applications of sludge . This provides an objective basis for limits for cadmium concentrations in soils receiving sludge . Transfer of cadmium via farm animals to meat and dairy products for human consumption is thought to be minimal, even allowing for some direct ingestion of sludge-treated soil by the animals . Evidence from these and other investigations suggests that a loading rate limit of 5 kg Cd/ha (equivalent to a soil concentration of about 3.5 mg Cd/kg) affords adequate protection to the foodchain where sludge is used on agricultural land . More research work is needed to provide a basis for predicting the long-term availability of cadmium introduced to the soil in sludge. Comp Biochem Physiol C, 1984, 78(1), 105 - 10 A cupric ion-copper bioaccumulation relationship in coho salmon exposed to copper-containing treated sewage; Buckley JA et al.; Exposure of coho salmon for 25 days to dilutions of sewage treatment plant effluent with river water containing added Cu (either 35 or 70 micrograms total Cu 1(-1) and an array of Cu2+ concentrations resulted in accumulations of Cu in gill and liver tissues that (a) correlated positively with the Cu2+ contents of the solutions; (b) reached a plateau coincident with onset of mortalities; and (c) correlated positively between these two tissues . Increases in hematocrit percentage and plasma albumin levels occurred in response to 7 micrograms Cu2+ 1(-1), indicating hemoconcentration . Treatment of blood in vitro under similar conditions resulted in association of Cu with the plasma rather than with the erythrocyte fraction. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1983 Dec, 46(6), 1263 - 7 Malachite green-INT (MINT) method for determining active bacteria in sewage; Dutton RJ et al.; A membrane filtration method was developed to determine the proportion of active (respiring) bacteria at various stages of sewage treatment . Samples were incubated in the presence of 2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride (INT) and, after fixation, passed through membrane filters . Filters were counterstained with malachite green and then were examined by bright-field microscopy . The contrast between bacteria and the filter background was greatly improved by drying and then clearing the filter before counterstaining . By this method, it was found that active bacterial fractions in raw sewage, settled sewage, and secondary effluent were 40, 29, and 58%, respectively, whereas the proportion of respiring bacteria in chlorinated secondary effluent was 6.1% . The active bacterial fraction of activated sludge was found to be 16% . The proposed method represents a significant improvement in speed and simplicity over existing methods for determining active bacteria in sewage. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1983 Sep, 178(1-2), 98 - 110 {Communicable disease problems of sewage with special reference to human pathogenic viruses}; Seidel K; Summarizing, it can be said that the epidemiological hygienic risk originating from community waste water can be controlled . This risk appears to be considerably lower when directly handling waste water than indirectly by contact with water contaminated by waste water . The sewage treatment technologies presently in use reduce the contents of viruses, bacteria, protozoa and worm eggs to a varying extent . Owing to the fluctuating concentrations in the inflow to the sewage treatment plant, a proportion of these microbes or proliferation stages of parasitic worms must always be expected not to be eliminated . The pathogens held back in the treatment plant burden primarily the sewage sludge . The various processes of sludge stabilisation influence their number and degree of infectiousness to a varying extent (2, 3, 6) . The most important risks of infection which waste water entails, originate from contaminations of raw water and above all of treated drinking water . Statistics from the United States indicate that the above-mentioned bacteria, protozoa and part of the viruses have caused drinking water epidemics (23, 24) . Attention has to be paid to bacteria and viruses because some of them prove harmful already in very low doses . Moreover, the occurrence of protozoa should be investigated more intensely . Apart from changes in pathogenicity and low infectious doses, also the fact should be duly considered that these microorganisms are likely to increasingly invade our waste waters, as millions of people yearly head for southern climates . There they fall easily prey to infections which overwhelmingly remain inapparent clinically, and discharge pathogens frequently for a very long period without revealing any symptoms . Also in connection with methods of virus analysis, improved meanwhile the constant efforts for improved indicator systems in the identification of pathogenic organisms must be continued so that epidemiological hygienic problems can be better evaluated and solved. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1983 Sep, 178(1-2), 68 - 80 {From the Cloaca Maxima to current sewage treatment works--historical aspects of waste disposal}; Schadewaldt H; According to calculations made by the well-known hygienist Max Rubner in 1890, the annual quantity of waste made up of excreta, urine, kitchen refuse, ashes and water for general use than ran to 7,300 kgs . Thus it appears quite obvious that as early as in the ancient high cultures special waste disposal plants existed . In the Old Testament cesspools were in use, in Ancient Egypt sliding boxes served the same purpose, the Cretan palace of Knossos was provided with a really sophisticated water closet system and there is evidence that a similar facility existed in Mesopotamia . The Roman Cloaca maxima which functioned as a sanitary system for the entire capital, has never ceased to impress . With the advent of the so-called "miasma theory", public health legislations also started to take care of waste disposal, and as a result, various lavatories, slaughter-house and waste water facilities were created . When bacteriology began to establish itself, close attention was devoted to the ground water and the rivers . The "squatting closet" in Roman countries contrasted with the flush closet in England . For waste disposal, the so-called "Heidelberg barrel system" or the "Kiel exchange bucket system" were introduced . Of more recent date are the digestion chambers, the flow settling tanks and the "trickling or oxydation system" on the sprinkling fields. Br J Ind Med, 1983 Aug, 40(3), 325 - 9 Work related symptoms among sewage workers; Lundholm M et al.; Employees at six sewage treatment plants and three drinking water plants were interviewed for the presence of specific medical symptoms . Serum immunoglobulin concentrations, white blood cell counts and fibrinogen degradation product concentrations (FDP) in urine were determined as were the number and species of airborne Gram negative rods in order to characterise exposure to aerosols of sewage water . The highest number of bacteria was found in areas where the sewage water was agitated . A significantly higher proportion of employees at sewage treatment plants reported skin disorders, diarrhoea, and other gastrointestinal symptoms than the control group . No significant differences were found between the groups for white blood cell count or serum immunoglobulin concentrations, except that IgM concentrations were slightly higher in the sewage workers . Some workers had serum transaminase concentrations in excess of normal; some of these returned to normal after the summer holiday . Among non-smokers a higher proportion of sewage treatment workers had increased amounts of FDP in urine . It is conceivable that the symptoms observed were caused by toxins from Gram negative bacteria. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1983 Jun, 177(5), 436 - 50 {Filamentous bacteria in activated sludge (bulking sludge) . I . Occurrence of filamentous bacteria in a sewage treatment plant working with the activated sludge process (plug flow system)}; Emmrich M et al.; The occurrence of filamentous bacteria in activated sludge (bulking sludge) was investigated in the sewage treatment plant Berlin-Ruhleben . The studies were carried out in five periods from 26.10.1981 to 29.7.1982 (= 112 sampling days) . It was noticed that filamentous bacteria appeared in the aeration tanks in different quantities and several kinds of species . With the identification key from Eikelboom Microthrix parvicella, Type 021 N and Type 0041 were frequently identified in all aeration tanks, whereas Type 0961 and Nocardia spec . were observed only in several aeration tanks . Haliscomenobacter hydrossis, Thiothrix spec., Type 0914, Type 1701, Type 1851 and Type 1852 appeared only sporadically . Besides the familiar filamentous bacteria another species was identified under the microscope which, however, could not be classified so far . The filaments are straight or slightly bent with a visible septation and long cylindrical cells . The species is Gram- and Neisser-negative and shows no deposition of sulfur granules. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 1983 Jun, 3(2), 144 - 51 A mathematical model of biodegradability screening tests as an aid to interpretation of observed results; Painter HA et al.; A mathematical model, based on a modification of the Michaelis--Menten and Monod equations describing bacterial growth, has been used to predict the course of removal of the organic substrates in the modified OECD and other screening tests . A range of initial concentrations of bacteria in the inoculum has been selected, using published data on the total bacterial count in secondary sewage effluents and activated sludge, to simulate the wide range of volumes of these materials used in practice . The arbitrary definition of ready biodegradability adopted by the OECD, that is, 5 to the equivalent of 70% DOC removal in not more than 10 days in a total incubation period of 28 days, is expressed in terms of inoculum size and kinetic constants . Modifications are proposed to the screening test with the object of making it more useful and realistic in predicting whether or not a chemical will be removed in sewage treatment. Mikrobiologiia, 1983 May-Jun, 52(3), 505 - 11 {Selection and biochemical activity of a microbial biocenosis in the process of concentrated sewage treatment}; Naumova RP et al.; A bacterial cenosis responsible for the destruction of organic wastes having a complex composition was selected under the conditions of continuous cultivation on highly concentrated industrial sewage . Most of the bacterial species and all of the yeasts and fungi were eliminated from the original microflora when the concentration of the purified sewage was increased from 2 to 12 g O2 per litre (in terms of the overall chemical oxygen uptake, COU) and the dilution rate (D) varied from 0.08 to 0.25 h-1 . The number of species was reduced to 10 in the cenosis . The degree of oxidation of organic compounds in the sewage was 94 to 97% at the maximal parameters of the process . The specific rate of oxidation as well as the respiration and dehydrogenase activities increased with a rise in both COU and D . The highest biochemical activity was observed at D=0.25 h-1: Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1983 Feb, 44(2), 109 - 12 Worker exposure to chlorinated organic compounds from the activated-sludge wastewater treatment process; Lurker PA et al.; The objective of this research was to investigate some of the potentially controlling factors influencing the atmospheric releases of volatile organic chlorinated compounds from the activated-sludge sewage treatment process . The field study was designed to evaluate the wastewater and airborne concentrations of six chlorinated compounds: hexachlorobicycloheptadiene (hex-BCH), heptachlorobicycloheptene (Hex-VCL), chlordene, chloroform (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and tetrachloroethylene (TCE) . Analysis of samples consisted of saturating 5 mL aliquots with sodium chloride, extracting with an equal amount of petroleum ether (PE) and subsequent analysis using a gas chromatograph . The air samples collected on Chromsorb 102 were desorbed with 2 mL PE . The study revealed that the highest wastewater concentrations for the water-insoluble hex-BCH, hex-VCL and chlordene were found in the aeration basins, which suggests adsorption of these compounds to the biomass . The plant effluent wastewater concentrations were reduced because of airborne release and suspended solids separation in the clarifiers . In contrast, the wastewater concentrations for the more water-soluble CHCl3, CCl4 and TCE were significantly reduced in the aeration basins . This is because of aerial stripping at the grit-chamber weir . This study suggests that the water-insoluble compounds have prolonged aerial release from the aeration basins . The water-insoluble compounds adhere to the biomass, which is recycled through the plant . The aerial release of these water-insoluble compounds was enhanced by increased aeration rate but depressed by higher suspended solids concentrations. Dtsch Med Wochenschr, 1983 Jan 14, 108(2), 57 - 60 {Intestinal protozoal infestation in persons with occupational sewage contact}; Knobloch J et al.; Intestinal protozoal infestation and antibodies against Entamoeba histolytica were determined in 614 employees of the Hamburg sewage works and compared with control groups without occupational sewage contact . The protozoal infection rate was significantly higher in sewer-men than in control persons . There was a positive correlation between the duration of exposure to sewage and the frequency of intestinal protozoal infestation . The risk of infection by sewage was higher than by a short journey to tropical or subtropical countries . Immunodiagnostic results showed no significant differences of invasive activity of E . histolytica between both investigated groups . On the basis of parasitological results classification of amoebiasis and giardiasis as occupational diseases in exposed persons is recommended. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Oct, 44(4), 838 - 43 In situ studies with membrane diffusion chambers of antibiotic resistance transfer in Escherichia coli; Altherr MR et al.; Coliform bacteria were isolated from raw sewage and sewage effluent-receiving waters and tested for their antibiotic susceptibility patterns and their ability to transfer antibiotic resistance to Escherichia coli K-12 C600 . An environmental isolate of E . coli (MA527) capable of transferring antibiotic resistance to C600 was mated, both in vitro and in situ, with an antibiotic-sensitive E . coli environmental isolate (MA728) . In situ matings were conducted in modified membrane diffusion chambers, in the degritter tank at the Grant Street (Melbourne, Fla.) sewage treatment facility, and in the sewage effluent-receiving waters in Melbourne, Fla . The transfer frequencies in situ were 3.2 x 10(-5) to 1.0 x 10(-6), compared with 1.6 x 10(-4) to 4.4 x 10(-5) observed in vitro . Transfer was shown to occur in raw sewage but was not detected in the effluent-receiving waters . The presence of a 60-megadalton plasmid species in both donor and transconjugants, but not in the recipients, provided physical evidence for the transfer of antibiotic resistance in situ. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Jun, 43(6), 1440 - 50 Development of a method for detection of human rotavirus in water and sewage; Smith EM et al.; The simian rotavirus SA11 was used to develop a simple, reliable, and efficient method to concentrate rotavirus from tap water, treated sewage, and raw sewage by absorption to and elution from Filterite fiberglass-epoxy filters . SA11 adsorbed optimally to Filterite filters from water containing 0.5 mM AlCl3 at pH 3.5 . Filter-bound virus was eluted with 0.05 M glycine-NaOH supplemented with 10% tryptose phosphate broth at pH 10 . SA11 was quantitated by plaque assay, whereas human rotavirus was detected by immunofluorescence . The method was applied to detect rotavirus in raw and treated sewage at two Houston, Tex., sewage treatment plants . The sewage isolates were identified as rotavirus, probably a human strain, based on several criteria . The sewage isolates were detectable by an immunofluorescence test, using anti-SA11 serum which would detect the simian, human bovine, and porcine rotaviruses . No reaction was noted by immunofluorescence with the reoviruses or several common enteroviruses . The sewage isolates were neutralized by convalescent sera from a human adult and infant who had been infected by rotavirus as well as by a hyperimmune serum prepared in guinea pigs against purified human rotavirus . Preimmune or preillness sera did not react with the isolates by neutralization or immunofluorescence . The natural isolates were sensitive to pH 11 and other inactivating agents, similar to SA11 . The buoyant density of the sewage isolates in CsCl gradients was 1.36 g/cm3, which is the value usually reported for complete, infectious rotavirus particles . The double-shelled particle diameter was 67.1 +/- 2.4 nm . Finally, electron micrographs of cell lysates inoculated with the sewage isolate showed particles displaying characteristic rotavirus morphology. Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1982, 137(8), 603 - 10 Enumeration and identification of pathogenic bacteria from sewage in Kuwait; Sallal AK et al.; Mycobacterium spp . was isolated and enumerated in all sewage samples at different stages of the sewage treatment . Aeromonas hydrophila, Salmonella spp., Shigella dysenteriae and others were isolated from both treated and untreated sewage . Moreover, the serological identification of Salmonella spp . was also done, using antisera specific to their antigenic structures . Counts of bacteria in various sewage sludges and effluents tested showed the efficiency of the activated sludge process in reducing the bacterial number . Seasonal variation in either the number or kind of pathogenic bacteria revealed inconsiderable changes . Almost all species of bacteria tested were found to be resistant to ampicillin. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1982, 176(5-6), 537 - 45 {Virus removal from municipal wastewater by biological sewage treatment}; Antoniadis G et al.; During a period of ten months, we have determined once a week the amount of viruses in the untreated sewage and in the effluent of two communal sewage treatment plants . Besides, we have compared the virus content of chlorinated and unchlorinated effluent and have determined the amount of viruses in the river in which the effluent is discharged, and in groundwater . In order to concentrate the viruses, the AlCl3-treated samples were filtered through cellulose nitrate filters and the adsorbed viruses eluted with cell culture medium containing 10% fetal calf serum . This medium was used for inoculating cell cultures which were monitored several times weekly for CPE . After the treatment in the plants, the number of viruses was reduced 99.15 and 97.9% respectively . Chlorination of the effluent further reduced the number of viruses by a factor of 5 . None of the groundwater samples was viruspositive. Nord Vet Med, 1982 Jan-Feb, 34(1-2), 1 - 12 {Toxocara canis as a cause of visceral larva migrans . Survival and development of eggs in the environment and potential ways of transmission to man: a review}; Korsholm E; A review is given on the occurrence of Toxocariasis, the prevalence of T . canis among dogs and investigations on the prevalence of infective ova in soil- and sandsamples . The resistance of ascarid eggs and larvae against different environmental influences, including various sewage treatment-effects is discussed . The eggs are destroyed in 7 minutes when kept at 55 degrees C in a high humidity, slower when the humidity is lowered . When the temperature is -32 degrees C T . canis eggs are inactivated after 8 hours . Complete embryonation is reached in 4 days when the temperature is 30 degrees C . Potential ways of transmission to man are outlined (pica, vegetables, bathing etc.) and recommendations in order to prevent the disease are given such as deworming of dogs, methods to decimate occurrence of eggs in wastewater and sludge etc. J Occup Med, 1981 Nov, 23(11), 771 - 4 Airborne irritant contact dermatitis due to sewage sludge; Nethercott JR; An outbreaks of cases of airborne irritant contact dermatitis developed among incinerator workers employed in a sewage treatment facility . Contamination of the workplace and workers' clothing by sludge from the interstices of an incinerator exhaust fan proved to be the cause of the problem . The irritancy of the sludge was determined by tests in rabbits . There was no recurrence of the problem after the institution of hygienic measures designed to control contact with the sludge during subsequent fan maintenance procedures. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, 1981, 29(2), 209 - 16 Effects of bacterial endotoxin inhalation; Snella MC; Airborne Gram-negative bacteria contamination has been demonstrated in several environments like cotton or flax factories, rooms with humidifiers and sewage treatment plants . Inhalation of LPS by animals provokes a bronchial invasion by neutrophils, a platelet aggregation in pulmonary capillaries, a local immune response and fever . Inhalation by human is related with clinical symptoms like fever, chills, malaise, muscle and joint aches and chest thightness . It appears from data in the literature that LPS airborne contamination is sufficient to provoke such symptoms . It seems important to study more precisely the contamination of suspected air in presence of these symptoms. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 1981, 47(2), 133 - 45 The speciation of coliform genera from above and below a sewer outfall and their susceptibilities to antimicrobial agents; Thirkell D et al.; The occurrence of coliforms in a small water course was shown to increase by a factor of thirty six below the outfall of a sewage treatment plant . Speciation of the bacteria from above and below the sewer outfall showed that Escherichia coli and Enterobacter species predominated . Drug resistance levels were significant in microorganisms from both sampling sites and the occurrence of a significant number of multiple-resistant microorganisms, particularly E . coli, is reported . Both E . coli and Enterobacter species from below the sewer outfall show a statistically significant increase in resistance to ampicillin and E . coli from below the outfall also shows a statistically significant increase in resistance to sulpha-methoxazole as compared with isolates from above the outfall. Am J Public Health, 1981 Jan, 71(1), 47 - 52 Iodine-131 levels in sludge and treated municipal wastewaters near a large medical complex; Prichard HM et al.; Iodine-131 was found to dominate the gamma spectra of dried sludge and concentration liquid effluent samples from a sewage treatment plant serving the area containing the Texas Medical Center in 1975 . The concentration of Iodine-131 varied considerably on a time scale of weeks but was fairly stable in the course of a single day . The partition of Iodine-131 between the dried sludge and the liquid effluent was found to be reasonably constant during the sampling period . Knowledge of the concentration in these phases and the daily output of sludge and effluent let to be estimate of an annual discharge of over one Curie of Iodine-131 . Circumstantial evidence linking this discharge to the practice of nuclear medicine in the area is considered strong, but an attempt to correlate variation in the effluent activity with actual nuclide use was inconclusive due, among other reasons, to an insufficient clinical data base . An analysis of possible exposure pathway indicated that negligible human exposure resulted from the Iodine-131 released primarily because the receiving body of water is a saline industrial waterway . A more extensive analysis would be in order for a similar plant discharging treated wastewaters into an inland water system. J Chromatogr, 1980 Jun 20, 194(2), 199 - 204 Presence of squalane in urban aquatic environments; Matsumoto G et al.; Ethyl acetate extracts of river waters and sediments, night-soil and sewage treatment plant effluents and sludges from the Tokyo area were analysed for squalane using combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after separation by silica gel column chromatography . Squalane was identified in all the samples studied and the concentration in river waters and sediments ranged from 0.46 to 1.7 micrograms/l and from 0.86 to 15 micrograms per g dry sediment, respectively . Squalane is presumably derived from artificial materials rather than from natural sources, with the exception of fossil fuel products. J Occup Med, 1980 Apr, 22(4), 256 - 7 Occupational symptoms among compost workers; Lundholm M et al.; Exposure to gram-negative bacteria and the presence of subjective symptoms among workers were investigated at an experimental compost plant . Four of the 11 workers reported nausea, headache, and diarrhea, an incidence greater than that reported by workers in a drinking water plant . The number of airborne gram-negative bacteria was high where household garbage was agitated by the technical equipment . The findings are similar to those in studies on workers in sewage treatment plants. Zentralbl Bakteriol {B}, 1980 Feb, 170(1-2), 82 - 7 {The removal of salmonellae in waste water by bacteriophages (author's transl)}; Muller HE; Sewage treatment plants show only a 90-99% reduction in numbers of salmonellae . And the following chlorination of the effluents produces chlorinated organic derivatives and these are likely to be of great long term environmental danger . Thus for reasons of hygiene, it is desirable to study biological methods to remove salmonellae in waste waster . Therefore, the efficiency of the Felix O 1-bacteriophage for the removal of S . schottmuelleri and S . typhimurium was investigated . The composition and the pH of the medium (Destilled water, Sorensen phosphate buffer solution, pH 6.0-8.0, and sterilized wate water, pH 6.5) seem not to have a considerable importance for the observed salmonellae removal efficiency . As it is shown, the reduction of salmonellae by the O 1-phages is dependent on their concentration (Fig . 1) . It is true, there is 90-99% removal of salmonellae as a function of their concentration, but a perfect elimination is not possible. J Hyg (Lond), 1980 Feb, 84(1), 47 - 62 The occurrence and significance to animal health of salmonellas in sewage and sewage sludges; Jones PW et al.; A total of 882 samples of settled sewage, sewage sludges and final effluents from eight sewage treatment plants were examined for the presence of salmonellas . Of these samples 68% were positive, isolations being made most frequently from settled sewage (85%), raw sludge (87%) and anaerobically digested sludge (96%) . Fewer isolations were made from final effluent (24%) and processed sludges (58%) . Samples usually contained less than 200 salmonellas/100 ml and arguments are presented that such concentrations should not lead to disease in animals if suitable grazing restrictions are followed. Mycopathologia, 1979 Nov 30, 69(1-2), 121 - 7 {Yeasts in waste water from sewage treatment plants}; Hinzelin F et al.; The authors have studied the influence of sewage treatment plants over the yeast population in the waste waters coming from towns . Quantitatively, the number of microorganisms shows a 90% decrease in the process of the treatment . 49 different species have been identified . Evidence of pollution coming from human being has been particularly looked for . The authors point out the different ways of detecting the Candida albicans. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1979 Nov, 40(11), 947 - 54 Gaseous hydrogen sulfide determination by discoloration of lead-stabilized PVC; Graedel TE et al.; The discoloration of lead-stabilized PVC resulting from its interaction with H2S gas has been investigated as a potential H2S measurement technique . Color measurements of PVC samples exposed to controlled concentrations of H2S over a range of humidities and temperatures demonstrate that toxic H2S concentrations can be detected in less than five minutes . The technique is thus appropriate for industrial applications such as the pretesting of manhole atmospheres prior to entry . Exposure times of several hours are sufficient to detect the much lower H2S concentrations that may be present ambient air; for example, 15 hour exposures are needed for 10 +/- 3 ppb H2S, a level typical of certain oil field, swamp, and sewage treatment areas . The technique is inexpensive and can be performed by unskilled personnel. JAMA, 1979 May 18, 241(20), 2177 - 9 Occupational exposure to hexachlorocyclopentadiene . How safe is sewage? Morse DL, Kominsky JR, Wisseman CL 3rd, Landrigan PJ. In March 1977, a large volume of the industrial chemical hexachlorocyclopentadiene (HCCPD) was dumped into a municipal sewage system in Kentucky . We evaluated the health effects of exposure to HCCPD in 145 sewage treatment plant workers . We found that 85 (59%) had noted eye irritation, 65 (45%) had headaches, and 39 (27%) had throat irritation . Symptoms occurred throughout the plant; however, highest attack rates occurred in primary sewage treatment areas . Medical examination of 41 employees three days after the plant was closed showed proteinuria and elevation of serum lactic dehydrogenase levels; these findings were not present three weeks later . This episode demonstrates the toxicity of HCCPD and emphasizes the vulnerability of sewage workers to chemical toxins in wastewater systems. Zentralbl Bakteriol {B}, 1979, 169(5-6), 551 - 9 {The occurrence of salmonellae in drinking water (author's transl)}; Muller HE; A total of 7187 samples of drinking water from different areas of the Lower Saxonian District of Braunschweig was investigated according to regulations of the Trinkwasser-Verordnung during June 1977 and May 1979 . The bacteriological results are given in Tab . 1 and 2 . Salmonellae were isolated in three samples of drinking water and in one sample of sludge from a municipal pipe of drinking water (see also Tab . 2) . Additional experiments confirm that growth of salmonellae and other enterobacteria is possible in that sludge (Fig . 1 and 2) . These findings implicate some considerations: E . coli and coliforms are the most important microbial water quality indicators of the Trinkwasser-Verordnung . It is presupposed that, when the indicator density is low (less than 1 per 100 ml) the probability that pathogen are present also will be very low . But the question is how low . The risk factor may be estimated on the base of the E . coli-Salmonella ratio in raw sewage of about 10(6) . But this relation lessens already in effluents of sewage treatment plants to 10(3) and it seems to be often 10(2) in inadequately disinfected drinking water . For example, we have found four Salmonella serotypes and 408 E . coli during two years . Therefore, the judgement of the presence of E . coli or coliforms in samples of drinking water must impact highly on the improvement of the water quality by disinfection in future. Environ Health Perspect, 1978 Dec, 27, 291 - 4 Hazardous solid wastes generated in the cleanup of air and water; Eisenbud M; Air and water pollution control programs sometimes result in production of solid wastes that are difficult to manage . The sludges from sewage treatment plants and flue gas scrubbers are two examples . In many coastal communities, there is no alternative to ocean dumpling of sewage sludges for the foreseeable future . The use of sludges as soil conditioners, their conversion to fuels by pyrolysis, and other alternatives are frequently mentioned options, but they have not been demonstrated to be practical on a large scale . The Federal requirement that ocean dumping be terminated by 1981 presents the large seaboard population centers with a dilemma, due to the absence of economically feasible alternative methods of disposal . Another major solid waste problem is arising from the Federal policy that requires flue gas desulfurization on practically all power plants . This policy, designed to reduce sulfur oxide emissions, will require that vast quantities of sludge be stored . Their environmental impact is as yet not fully evaluated . Commercial use of the sulfur or sulfates produced in these processes may be possible, but its practicability on a large scale remains to be demonstrated. Environ Health Perspect, 1978 Dec, 27, 231 - 7 Hazardous solid waste from domestic wastewater treatment plants; Harrington WM Jr; The treatment of liquid wastes in municipal sewage treatment plants creates significant quantities of solid residue for disposal . The potential hazard from these wastes requires that their characteristics be determined accurately to develop environmentally sound management criteria . It is readily recognized that the sludge characteristics vary with the type and degree of industrial activity within a wastewater collection system and that these characteristics play a significant role in determining whether the material has potential for beneficial reuse or if it must be directed to final disposal . This paper offers an overview of past and present practices of sewage sludge disposal, an indication of quantities produced, and experience with beneficial reuse . An estimated range of costs involved, expected environmental effects and potential for continued use is offered for each disposal or reuse system discussed. Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig A}, 1978 Dec, 242(4), 468 - 80 Epidemiological studies on salmonella in a certain area ("Walcheren project") III . The presence of salmonella in man, insects, seagulls and in foods, chopping-block scrapings from butcher's shops, effluent of sewage treatment plants and drains of butcher's shops; Edel W et al.; For a period of three months in a relatively small area (Walcheren), various materials (meat and meat products, insects, seagull droppings, chopping-block scrapings from butcher's shops, effluent of sewage treatment plants, drains from butcher's shops and stools of patients) were examined again for the presence of Salmonella as a continuation of previous investigations . As had been the case in previous studies, S . typhimurium (27.5%), S . panama (22.2%) and S . brandenburg (9.2%) were the three most frequently isolated serotypes . The three most frequently isolated phage types of S . typhimurium were II 505 (62.1%) II 502 (5.3%) and I 650 (4.2%) . The serotypes and phage types were present in almost all the materials examined which again emphasizes the fact that there are contamination cycles of Salmonella . These studies show that the route of contamination divides in the butcher's shops . Salmonella organisms carried with the meat from the slaughter-house find their way into the drains on the one hand, and through meat and meat products, to the consumer on the other . Moreover, the high degree of contamination of effluent is not in accordance with the small number of cases of salmonellosis in man. Zentralbl Bakteriol {B}, 1978 Nov, 167(4), 337 - 46 Disinfection of effluents from municipal sewage treatment plants with peroxy acids; Poffe R et al.; Two peroxy acids, peracetic acid (PAA) and peroxy-monosulfuric acid or caro acid (CA) were tested as alternative bactericidal agents for the disinfection of effluents from municipal sewage treatment plants and their action was compared with chlorine . PAA added in a concentration of 2000 and 400 ppm, commonly used in medicin, killed in a few minutes 99.9% or more of most bacteria of the effluents (Fig . 1, A, B, C, D, E) excepted staphylococci and micrococci (Fig 1, F) and endospores (Fig . 1, G) . These effects were comparable with those obtained with 5 ppm chlorine . Although these results indicate a very good killing effect, such concentrations of PAA are not applicable in practice, as they lowered the pH and increased the BOD of the effluent . When PAA was added in smaller amounts (10 and 5 ppm) no change of the pH and only a negligible increase of the BOD (Table 1) occured . These concentrations with a contact time of 15 min, gave a very good reduction of most bacterial groups, varying between 96% (total count, Fig . 1 A) and 100% (group-D streptococci, Fig . 1 E) . With 1 ppm PAA the bactericidal action was slower, but after 30 minutes contact time the effects were similar to these of 5 ppm . It was also demonstrated that the effect of PAA was not affected by the number of bacteria in the effluent before treatment (Table 2), but well by the BOD . The addition of the inorganic CA in high concentrations had only a disadvantageous effect on the pH of the effluent, but no effect was noted when it was added in concentrations of 10 ppm . In this concentration, contact times of 120 min were necessary to kill about 90% of most bacteria (Fig . 2), showing that CA was only a weak disinfectant with slow action . It may be concluded that 5 ppm PAA could be a good alternative disinfectant for secondary effluents with a high degree of purification. J Hyg (Lond), 1978 Aug, 81(1), 43 - 8 Salmonellosis in wild birds feeding at sewage treatment works; Plant CW; Between June 1976 and August 1977 faeces were collected from 599 wild British birds caught during ringing operations at two sewage treatment works in south-east England . Samples were incubated with selenite-F broth to detect the presence of Salmonella . Salm . anatum was isolated from one bird, a Dunnock Prunella modularis an incidence of 0.17% of the total birds examined and 3.23% of the Dunnocks . Comparisons are drawn with previously reported studies and it is suggested that sewage treatment works play little part in the transmission of Salmonella infections to wild birds feeding there. Can J Microbiol, 1978 Aug, 24(8), 1004 - 6 Viruses in sewage: effect of phosphate removal with calcium hydroxide (lime); Sattar SA et al.; During calcium hydroxide (lime) treatment (pH 9.6 to 10.5) of wastewaters for phosphate removal there was also a two-log removal of added poliovirus (type I, Sabin) from effluents . A similar virus reduction was seen in the sludge generated in these experiments . However, in view of the limitations of techniques for virus recovery from sludge, only a small portion of the infectious virus present in lime sludge may have been detected . Storage of lime sludge at 28 degrees C for up to 48 h produced no appreciable reduction in the virus titre . Five sets of field samples of sewage, effluents, and sludge from a sewage treatment plant (Kemptville, Ont.) which utilizes lime for phosphate removal were also examined for indigenous viruses being BS-C-1 cells . All of the sample of lime sludge and 80% of the samples of both sewage and lime-treated effluent revealed virus; after chlorination only 20% of the lime-treated effluent samples were positive for virus . In contrast, in an earlier study with essentially the same experimental set up, 76% of the sample of chlorinated primary effluent were found to contain virus . Because of the easily detectable quantities of infectious virus in lime sludge and due to the lack of virus inactivation during storage of such sludge, caution must be exercised in its handling and disposal. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Jul, 36(1), 81 - 9 Development of quantitative methods for the detection of enteroviruses in sewage sludges during activation and following land disposal; Hurst CJ et al.; The development and evaluation of methods for the quantitative recovery of enteroviruses from sewage sludge are reported . Activated sewage sludge solids were collected by centrifugation, and elution of the solid-associated virus was accomplished by mechanical agitation in glycine buffer at pH 11.0 . Eluted viruses were concentrated either onto an aluminum hydroxide floc or by association with a floc which formed de novo upon adjustment of the glycine eluate to pH 3.5 . Viruses which remained in the liquid phase after lowering the pH of glycine eluate were concentrated by adsorption to and elution from membrane filters . The method of choice included high pH glycine elution and subsequent low pH concentration; it yielded an efficiency of recovery from activated sludge of 80% for poliovirus type 1, 68% for echovirus type 7, and 75% for coxsackievirus B3 . This method was used to study the survival of naturally occurring virus in sludge at a sewage treatment plant and after subsequent land disposal of the solids after aerobic digestion . Reduction of enterovirus titers per gram (dry weight) of solids were modest during sludge activation but increased to a rate of 2 log 10/week after land disposal. Am J Vet Res, 1978 Apr, 39(4), 717 - 9 Salmonella serotypes isolated from the aquatic environment (Wabash River, Indiana, 1973-1976); Morse EV et al.; During 1973-1976, 833 isolations of salmonellae were made from the aquatic biosphere of the Wabash River, Lafayette, Ind . Of the isolants, 643 were definitively serotyped . Salmonella typhimurium represented 34.4% of the cultures . Salmonella eimsbuettel previously had not been recognized in Indiana . A total of 35 serotypes and 1 untypable group C1 was obtained from the aquatic samples, ie, river water, river bottom sediment, fish, and mussels . Most of the isolants were presumed to be of human origin, because many samplings were made in close proximity to sewage treatment plant outfalls . During the survey period, epidemic salmonellosis had not been reported for the Lafayette-West Lafayette metropolitan area. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Mar, 35(3), 540 - 8 Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes of tap water, treated sewage, and seawater; Gerba CP et al.; Methods are described for the efficient concentration of an enterovirus from large volumes of tap water, sewage, and seawater . Virus in acidified water (pH 3.5) in the presence of aluminum chloride was adsorbed to a 10-inch (ca . 25.4 cm) fiberglass depth cartridge and a 10-inch pleated epoxy-fiberglass filter in a series at flow rates of up to 37.8 liters (10 gallons) per min . Adsorbed viruses were eluted from the filters with glycine buffer (pH 10.5 to 11.5), and the eluate was reconcentrated by using a combination of aluminum flocculation followed by hydroextraction . With this procedure, poliovirus in large volumes of tap water, seawater, and sewage could be concentrated with an average efficiency of 52, 53, and 50%, respectively . It was demonstrated that this method is capable of detecting surface solid-associated viruses originating from sewage treatment plants . No difference in virus recovery between laboratory batch studies and a set-up with acid-salt injection was found . This unified scheme for the concentration of viruses has many advantages over previously described systems . These include: high operating flow rates, low weight and small size, effectiveness with a variety of waters with widely varying qualities, and filters with a high resistance to clogging. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Jan, 35(1), 38 - 44 Phototrophic purple and green bacteria in a sewage treatment plant; Siefert E et al.; In all purification stages of a biological sewage treatment plant, phototrophic bacteria were detected by the method of viable cell counts . The predominant species identified belonged to the genus Rhodopseudomonas of purple nonsulfur bacteria . The number of phototrophic bacteria was highest in wastewater containing sludge . In activated sludge, an average of 10(5) viable cells/ml was found; the number depended upon concentration of sludge rather than on seasonal changes in light conditions in the course of a year . Bacteriochlorophyll a was extracted from activated sludge . Relative to the viable counts of phototrophic bacteria, the content of bacteriochlorophyll a was 5- to 10-fold higher than that of three representative pure cultures . By incubation of activated and digester sludge under different environmental conditions, it was shown that phototrophic bacteria can complete with other bacteria only under anaerobic conditions in the light. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1977 Dec, 1(3), 361 - 4 Public nuisance and entropy increase; Sugawara M; Public nuisance if the inevitable physical conclusion of the second law of thermodynamics, the increase of entropy, under which humans make efforts to build up order, that is, to make states of lower entropy, scattering much entropy into the environment . In other words, humans live on negentropy, negative entropy . Saving of negentropy is the first means of conserving the environment . Soon after C . E . Shanon had introduced the idea of entropy in information theory, N . Wiener showed the relation between entropy of thermodynamics and entropy of information . Wiener showed that the paradox of Maxwell is not a contradiction if we consider the entropy of demon's information . This idea is very suggestive . Moral principles, tax systems, and price mechanisms are effective for the conservation of the environment . Good information systems can conserve good environments . This is the second means . The third way is the use of biological systems . For example, in sewage treatment plants the active sludge purifies polluted water . The reason why microorganisms can select some substances in polluted water is that they have received the information by heredity, the information carried by the double helical structure of DNA. Can J Microbiol, 1977 Dec, 23(12), 1700 - 5 Anaerobic degradation of cellulose by mixed culture; Khan AW; A mixed culture in which cellulose is capable of being converted to methane and carbon dioxide was obtained from an inoculum procured from a sewage-treatment plant and maintained in a synthetic medium containing tissue paper and an inorganic salt and vitamin mixture . The culture was tested for its ability to degrade 12 different paper and cotton products under batch conditions in 3-l anaerobic fermenters . This culture degraded 6-8 mmol/l per week of cellulose, expressed as glucose equivalents, with total gas yields of 0.3 m3/kg of cellulose degraded . The gas produced contained between 56 and 59% of methane . Maximum cellulose degradation occurred at chemical oxygen demand:nitrogen:phosphorus level of 80:5:1 and was adversely affected by high stirring rate . Also the presence of higher proportions of lignin in cellulose products adversely affected the ability of this culture to degrade cellulose. Sci Total Environ, 1977 Nov, 8(3), 197 - 204 Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls in a municipal wastewater treatment plant and environs; Bergh AK et al.; Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in sewage wastes at a municipal sewage treatment plant was studied, showing that the great bulk of PCBs entering such a treatment plant become adsorbed onto the grit chamber solids and the sludge that is passed from the anaerobic digesters . When appreciable quantities of PCBs are present in sewage, as was the case in this study, significant quantities can nevertheless pass with the effluents discharged from the treatment plant . The PCB concentrations in the treatment plant waters undergoing secondary and tertiary treatment tend to be consistent with the limited solubility properties of the PCBs . However, appreciably higher concentrations can be found in the sediments of waters receiving treatment plant discharges and bioaccumulation in fish is demonstrated readily . Also described are quantitative data on PCBs in soils fertilized with PCB-contaminated sludge. Ciba Found Symp, 1977 Sep 13-15, (57), 229 - 42 The dissipation of phosphorus in sewage and sewage effluents; Collingwood RW; Of the 41 kt of phosphorus reaching the sewage works in England and Wales 15 kt is removed in sewage sludge and the remainder is disposed of to rivers . 60% of the sewage sludge is now used as fertilizer and this proportion will no doubt increase in the future . The total use of sewage sludge, however, represents only about 5% of the current annual usage of artificial phosphorus fertilizer . At present there is no general economic incentive to make better use of the phosphorus in effluents . Phosphorus removal is expensive--about 2--3 pence/m3 . If all the sewage effluents in England and Wales were to be so treated the cost would be about 100--150 million pounds annually, that is about 50% of the present costs of sewage treatment . In certain cases, but rarely in the UK, phosphate is removed, not to conserve phosphorus but to minimize the problems it creates in the environment . The phosphorus removed has little value as fertilizer . Alternative methods of using the phosphorus in effluents by the production and harvesting of crops of algae or aquatic plants have so far proved uneconomic . However, these methods need to be reviewed periodically as they may in the future become economically more attractive, especially in warmer climates where plant growth can be maintained throughout the year. Ciba Found Symp, 1977 Sep 13-15, (57), 269 - 84 The rationale for a ban on detergent phosphate in the Great Lakes Basin; Alexander GR Jr; Immediate reduction of phosphorus loadings to the Great Lakes is essential to slow accelerated eutrophication . The Great Lakes National Program Office of the US Environmental Protection Agency now advocates adoption of bans on detergent phosphates as the most practical and feasible means of immediately reducing the phosphorus loadings to the Great Lakes . This change in policy from previous reliance on removal by sewage treatment has been adopted for the following reasons: (1) Bans on phosphates will reduce capital and operating costs of treatment and, were adopted, have met with consumer acceptance . (2) In practice, treatment plants have not met design expectations for phosphate removal . (3) Neither nitrilotriacetic acid nor other substitutes for phosphates have proved to be a public health problem . (4) Reduction of phosphorus loadings to treatment plants avoids increasing levels of chlorides and total dissolved solids in effluents . (5) Water quality has improved in small lakes with phosphorus reduction . In summary, detergent phosphate bans alone will not reduce phosphorus loadings to the Great Lakes sufficiently for the long term but the Environmental Protection Agency has concluded that such action is necessary in addition to continued efforts to control non-point sources. Ciba Found Symp, 1977 Sep 13-15, (57), 253 - 68 The use of phosphate in detergents and possible replacements for phosphate; Gilbert PA et al.; About 5% of the total phosphate mined worldwide is used in detergents . The chemical form in which phosphate is used in detergents is predominantly pentasodium triphosphate (PSTP) . The most significant feature for the use of PSTP in detergents is its ability to form soluble and strong complexes with calcium and magnesium ions . This provides a strong synergism with regard to detergency when PSTP is used in combination with synthetic surfactants . Other important features of PSTP are its ability to disperse dirt in the washing solution, its weak alkalinity, its crystalline form when dry (which enables production of crisp powders) and, last but not least, its toxicological acceptability . The development of PSTP for use in detergents has a history of over 25 years . In certain areas of highly developed countries where effluents from major centres of population can reach stagnant surface waters a rapid increase of eutrophication of these surface waters is observed . Phosphates are being recognized as one of the essential nutrients contributing to the eutrophication and detergents are one of the many sources of phosphate discharged to the environment . This is now causing demands for reduction in or even banning of the use of phosphates in detergents . Major reserach projects and some practical approaches to meeting these demands are described . The potential environmental impact of removing phosphate from detergents remains, however, doubtful, as it has been demonstrated in Sweden that phosphate removal by sewage treatment is the most effective measure to control phosphate discharges . This makes the case of phosphates in detergents an example of how science and technology can become entangled with politics. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 1977 Mar 15, 102(6), 365 - 75 {Epidemiological studies on salmonella in a particular area ("Walcheren Project") . III . The incidence of salmonella in man, insects, gulls as well as foods scrapings from butcher's blocks, effluents of sewage treatment plants and drains from butcher's shops (author's transl)}; Edel W et al.; In continuation of previous studies, various materials (meat and meat products, insects, gull droppings, scrapings from butcher's blocks, effluents of sewage treatment plants, drains from butcher's shops and faeces of patients) were examined again at the same time for the presence of Salmonella in a relatively small are (Walcheren) over a period of three months . As was also the case in previous studies, S . typhi murium (27.5 per cent), S . panama (22.2 per cent) and S . brandenburg (9.2 per cent) were the three serotypes most frequently isolated . The three most frequently isolated phage types of S . typhi murium were II 505 (62.1 per cent), II 502 (5.3 per cent) and I 650 (4.2 per cent) . The serotypes and phage types were present in nearly all the materials studied which again emphasizes the fact that there are contamination cycles of Salmonella . These studies showed that the route of contamination divides in the butcher's shop . Salmonella ogranisms carried with the meat frome the slaughter-house find their way into the drains on the one hand, and, by meat and meat products, to consumers on the other . Moreover, the high degree of contamination of effluents is not in accordance with the small number of cases o