Water treatment

Nephrol Dial Transplant, 1989, 4(1), 51 - 6
Can low-dosage aluminium hydroxide control the plasma phosphate without bone toxicity?
Jenkins DA, Gouldesbrough D, Smith GD, Cowie JF, Winney RJ.
Sixteen patients treated exclusively by haemodialysis using reverse osmosis water treatment for up to 7 years (mean 49.3 +/- 17 months) were assessed for evidence of bone aluminium accumulation and toxicity . All patients were treated with aluminium hydroxide phosphate binders for the duration of dialysis but the dosage was restricted to a maximum of 2.85 g daily (mean daily dose 2.6 +/- 0.8 g) . The mean plasma phosphate over the 12 months prior to the study was 1.68 +/- 0.42 mmol/l and in only three patients was adequate control of the plasma phosphate not achieved . No patient had evidence of fracturing bone disease . Bone aluminium staining was present in only two patients but was seen at the calcification front in only one of these . Three patients had histological evidence of osteomalacia, but in none was aluminium staining present . Mean bone aluminium was moderately high at 36.67 +/- 31 micrograms/g and in only three patients exceeded 40 micrograms/g . This study indicates that adequate control of the plasma phosphate can be achieved with low dosage of aluminium hydroxide, and in the medium term is not associated with evidence of bone aluminium toxicity.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1988 Dec, 187(2), 112 - 24
{The pH-dependent solubility of heavy metals from sewage sludge of different compositions}; Rothe N et al.; Sludge suspensions of anaerobically digested sewage sludge, limed anaerobically digested sewage sludge, precipitation sludge of the tertiary waste water treatment and limed precipitation sludge were incubated for 8 days with continuous rotation at nine defined pH-values (pH 1, 3-10) . After membrane filtration (0.45 micron) solution concentrations of Zn, Cd, Cu, Pb and Cr were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy . Results show that solubilities of Cd, Zn and Cu depend not only on pH-value but also in a high degree on the sludge type . The solubility is by far the lowest in the anaerobically digested sludge . Most obvious differences can be found for Cd: While the concentrations of soluble Cd in anaerobically digested sludge only increase at pH values lower than pH 4, the solubility of Cd in precipitation sludge and limed sludges already show rapid increases at pH values lower than 7 . The solubility of Pb and Cr remains low in all sludges at all pH-values ranging from pH 3 to pH 10 . These results show that when judging ecological effects of heavy metals from sewage sludges the physical and chemical composition of these sludges should be considered.

Scanning Microsc, 1988 Dec, 2(4), 2141 - 51
Tubuloreticular reorganization of cytomembranes in cells treated with human alpha interferons--a review; Grimley PM et al.; Human alpha interferons (IFN-a) cause a reorganization of internal cell membranes into tubuloreticular inclusions (TRI) . Morphogenesis and cytochemistry indicate a pre-Golgi intracisternal origin from the endoplasmic reticulum . Clinically, TRI formation in human blood mononuclear cells correlates with systemic IFN-a treatment or with endogenous overproduction of IFN-a in viral or autoimmune diseases (e.g., rubella syndrome, AIDS, systemic lupus erythematosus) . In vitro, TRI formation can be produced by treatment of Daudi lymphoblasts or vascular endothelial cells with IFN-a, and is blocked by actinomycin-D . In Daudi lymphoblasts or vascular endothelial cell cultures, TRI formation parallels induction of 2'-5' A synthetase, inhibition of thymidine kinase and growth inhibition; however, heavy water treatment of Daudi cells prevented TRI formation while induction of 2'-5' A synthetase and growth inhibition persisted . TRI formation was dissociated from IFN-a antiproliferative activity in a mutant clone of Daudi lymphoblasts . Decreased glycoprotein biosynthesis and increased phospholipid biosynthesis may accompany progressive TRI accumulation.

Mutat Res, 1988 Nov, 196(3), 211 - 45
Genotoxic activity of organic chemicals in drinking water; Meier JR; The information summarized in this review provides substantial evidence for the widespread presence of genotoxins in drinking water . In many, if not most cases, the genotoxic activity can be directly attributed to the chlorination stage of drinking water treatment . The genotoxic activity appears to originate primarily from reactions of chlorine with humic substances in the source waters . Genotoxic activity in drinking water concentrates has been most frequently demonstrated using bacterial mutagenicity tests but results with mammalian cell assay systems are generally consistent with the findings from the bacterial assays . There is currently no evidence for genotoxic damage following in vivo exposures to animals . In some locations genotoxic contaminants of probable industrial and/or agricultural origin occur in the source waters and contribute substantially to the genotoxic activity of finished drinking waters . The method used for sample concentration can have an important bearing on study results . In particular, organic acids account for most of the mutagenicity of chlorinated drinking water, and their recovery from water requires a sample acidification step prior to extraction or XAD resin adsorption . Considerable work has been done to determine the identity of the compounds responsible for the mutagenicity of organic concentrates of drinking water . Recently, one class of acidic compounds, the chlorinated hydroxyfuranones, has been shown to be responsible for a major part of the mutagenic activity . Strategies for drinking water treatment that have been evaluated with respect to reduction of genotoxins in drinking water include granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration, chemical destruction, and the use of alternative means of treatment (i.e., ozone, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine) . GAC treatment has been found to be effective for removal of mutagens from drinking water even after the GAC is beyond its normal use for organic carbon removal . All disinfectant chemicals appear to have the capacity of forming mutagenic chemicals during water treatment . However, the levels of mutagenicity formed with the alternative disinfectants have been generally less than those seen with chlorine and, especially in the case of ozone, highly dependent on the source water.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

JAMA, 1988 Oct 14, 260(14), 2077 - 81
Pyrogenic reactions associated with the reuse of disposable hollow-fiber hemodialyzers; Gordon SM et al.; We investigated 18 pyrogenic reactions (PRs) that occurred between July 1 and 13, 1987, in 16 patients receiving long-term hemodialysis at one dialysis center in Illinois . We defined a case of PR as the onset of chills or fever (oral temperature, greater than or equal to 37.8 degrees C) in a patient who was afebrile and had no signs or symptoms of infection before a dialysis treatment . Pyrogenic reactions to dialysis sessions during the epidemic period (July 1 through 14) were associated with the use of a reused dialyzer (risk ratio, 6.2; 95% confidence interval, 0.8 to 45) . The water used to rinse the dialyzers after use and to dilute the germicide for disinfecting the dialyzers contained high concentrations of endotoxins (greater than 6 ng/mL) and bacteria (greater than 10(4) colony forming units/mL) . After reuse of dialyzers was discontinued at the center, the PR rate fell to pre-epidemic levels . We concluded that PRs were associated with reuse of dialyzers, probably contaminated with endotoxins . Active surveillance for PRs among patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis should be routine at all dialysis centers; an increase in PRs should prompt timely review of water treatment and dialyzer reprocessing systems.

Biomed Environ Mass Spectrom, 1988 Oct, 16(1-12), 255 - 7
A selected ion monitoring assay for triclosan in medical waste water; Matsushima H; A method for determinations of triclosan (TCS) and hexachlorophene (HCP) disinfectants in medical waste water by selected ion monitoring (SIM) using bithionol (BTN) as an internal standard compound has been developed . The method consists of the following procedures . (i) TCS and HCP in medical waste water were extracted and purified by an Extrelut column with ethyl acetate . (ii) The eluted TCS, HCP and BTN were converted to trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide-ethyl acetate (1:4) . (iii) The TMS derivatives of TCS, HCP and BTN were identified and determined by SIM . Recoveries of these compounds added to medical waste water were more than 88% in amounts ranging from 1 to 10 micrograms . In the waters from our medical waste water treatment plant, TCS and HCP concentrations were found to be 0.43-8.01 and 0.24-4.69 micrograms l-1, respectively . The present method is superior to the pre-existing ones in quick separation, specificity and sensitivity.

Sci Total Environ, 1988 Sep 15, 76(1), 19 - 28
Aluminium and fluoride in the water supply and their removal for haemodialysis; Cameron AP et al.; Aluminium and fluoride in the water supply and their removal for haemodialysis have been investigated in the Trent Region, U.K., and wide variations noted . The efficiency of removal of these elements from the mains water supplying home haemodialysis units by different water treatment systems currently installed has been assessed and a follow-up study performed 8 months later . Some improvement in water treatment was noted, with the percentage of home dialysis units receiving waters within the proposed European Economic Community guidelines for aluminium rising from 61.7 to 72.1% . Removal of fluoride by the different treatment mechanisms is analogous to that for aluminium . A comparison of new and older water treatment systems has shown that there is a deterioration in performance with use . However, some cases of poor removal may be due to the installation of unsuitable equipment, or, more probably, due to a change in the waters used to supply the different homes . Thus, adequate maintenance of equipment and frequent sampling of both untreated and treated waters are required in order to maintain the provision of waters suitable for the preparation of dialysate.

Cancer Lett, 1988 Sep-Oct, 42(1-2), 133 - 9
Effect of phenobarbital on diethylnitrosamine and dimethylnitrosamine induced hepatocellular tumors in male B6C3F1 mice; Klaunig JE et al.; The effect of the type of carcinogen initiator on the ability of phenobarbital (PB) to promote hepatic tumor formation in 15-day-old initiated male B6C3F1 mice was evaluated . Fifteen-day-old male B6C3F1 mice were divided into 6 groups of 10 mice each . Groups 1 and 2 received a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of diethylnitrosamine (DENA) (5 micrograms/body wt) . Groups 3 and 4 received a single i.p . injection of diethylnitrosamine (DENA) (5 micrograms/g body wt) . Groups 3 and 4 received a single i.p . injection of dimethylnitrosamine (DMNA) (5 micrograms/g body wt) . Groups 5 and 6 received a single i.p . injection of saline . At weaning (28 days of age), mice in groups 2, 4 and 6 received PB (500 mg/ml) in their drinking water . Mice in groups 1, 3 and 5 received deionized drinking water . Drinking water treatment continued for 24 weeks at which time mice were sampled . At sampling, mice were examined for hepatic tumors by histology . Mice in groups 5 (no treatment) and 6 (PB only) did not exhibit hepatic tumors . Groups 2 (DENA + PB) displayed a decrease in hepatic adenomas from that of group 1 (DENA only), confirming previous observations . Treatment with DMNA and PB (group 4), however, resulted in a significant increase in both hepatic adenoma incidence and number over that of DMNA only (group 3) treated mice . The promoted adenomas appeared to be predominantly eosinophilic in appearance . The type of initiator therefore appears important in determining if 15-day-old initiated male B6C3F1 mice respond to the promotion effects of PB.

J Burn Care Rehabil, 1988 Sep-Oct, 9(5), 510 - 5
Water treatment of hydrotherapy exercise pools; Edlich RF et al.; The major objectives of water treatment of hydrotherapy pools are to disinfect the water and to balance the water appropriately . A variety of disinfectant systems utilizing either halogens, ozone, or metals have been implemented in hydrotherapy pools . Regardless of the disinfectant system employed, continual and appropriate monitoring of the system is mandatory to prevent infection . Water balancing refers to the control of the water mineral concentration so that the water does not damage the pool . Five major factors that influence water balance are pH, total alkalinity, calcium hardness, total dissolved solids, and temperature . The extent to which these five factors affect water balance can be computed by the Langelier saturation index.

Can J Microbiol, 1988 Jul, 34(7), 907 - 10
Coliphages and enteric viruses in the particulate phase of river water; Payment P et al.; The present study was undertaken to determine if indigenous enteric viruses and coliphages are free or associated with suspended particulate matter in natural waters . River water was filtered on filters of decreasing porosities (100-0.25 micron) that were pretreated with detergent to eliminate viral adsorption while retaining particulates . This filtered water was refiltered in virus-adsorbing conditions to retain free viruses . The virus-adsorbing filter retained most of the enteric viruses (77.4%) and coliphages (65.8%), which indicated that these viruses were probably free or associated with particles with a diameter of less than 0.25 micron . These observations are important because in water treatment plants small particulates are often the most difficult to eliminate.

J In Vitro Fert Embryo Transf, 1988 Jun, 5(3), 171 - 4
Purification of water for in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer; Fleetham J et al.; The purpose of this study was to determine whether water obtained from the Milli-Q water purification system (Millipore, Mississauga, Canada) needed further purification for use in in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer . We describe a method for maintenance of the Milli-Q system . To assess water quality, alternate batches of culture media were prepared by using either Milli-Q water or Milli-Q water further treated by twice glass distillation . The percentage of mouse two-cell embryos that developed to blastocysts and the human in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer pregnancy rates were recorded for each batch . There were no significant differences in the parameters examined, indicating that further purification by twice glass distillation is not necessary if the Milli-Q system has been maintained as outlined.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1988 Jun, 186(3), 220 - 32
{The behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in a water purification plant . II . A mathematical balancing of the Ruhleben purification plant in Berlin}; Emmrich M et al.; Studies on PCB concentration and their distribution in waste water sludge of a municipal sewage plant are made . The incoming sewage has an average concentration of 813 ng/l, the effluent still contains 108 ng/l . The biggest part of the PCB is accumulated in the sludge . A comparison of the in- and output of PCB and the average PCB-patterns at the various sampling sites of the sewage plant shows that the PCB are not transformed or decomposed microbially.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1988 Jun, 186(3), 205 - 19
{The behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in water purification plants . I . Mathematical balancing in a model purification plant}; Emmrich M et al.; The behaviour of 39 PCB-isomers will be tested in a model sewage plant . Their distribution is described mathematically and the quantities of the partial streams are calculated . Because there is no loss of PCB through the ventilation of the activated sludge tank and according to the isomeric mass balance, it can be concluded that the less chlorinated PCB are decomposed microbially while all of the higher chlorinated PCB are found in the sludge and the effluent of the model plant.

Am J Physiol, 1988 May, 254(5 Pt 2), F739 - 46
Enhanced vasopressin (V2-receptor)-induced sodium retention in mineralocorticoid hypertension; Jeffries WB et al.; The deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-Na model of hypertension requires the presence of vasopressin for expression of high blood pressure . In the present study, the effects of vasopressin V2-receptor stimulation were examined in kidneys from rats receiving 1 wk of DOCA-Na or control (olive oil-tap water) treatment . The dose response to vasopressin (10(-10) to 10(-6) M) was tested in microdissected cortical collecting tubule (CCT) segments and adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation was significantly increased in segments from DOCA-Na rats vs . controls, confirming our previous study . In other experiments, kidneys from DOCA-Na and control rats were perfused with a modified Krebs-Henseleit buffer (37 degrees C, pH 7.4) and treated with either vehicle or 0.21-2.1 pM 1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin (DDAVP) . DDAVP caused significant (P less than 0.05) dose-related reductions in urine excretion (UV) and urinary sodium excretion (UNaV) in both DOCA-Na and control kidneys in the absence of changes in renal hemodynamics . However, DDAVP produced earlier and significantly greater reductions in UV and UNaV in kidneys from DOCA-Na vs . control rats . Percent fractional excretion of sodium was reduced significantly only in the DOCA-Na group (2.1 pM DDAVP) . A small degree of antikaluresis was seen with DDAVP in both groups . Thus, DOCA-Na treatment augmented cAMP accumulation in the CCT, accompanied by a significant enhancement of DDAVP-stimulated urinary sodium and water reabsorption at the level of the intact kidney.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Hum Reprod, 1988 Feb, 3(2), 245 - 8
Methods of water purification for the preparation of culture media in an IVF-ET programme; Yovich JL et al.; Five methods of water purification for culture media preparation have been described . The quality of media thus prepared has been assessed retrospectively by relating to the fertilization and pregnancy rates of a total of 646 treatment cycles in an in-vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) programme . All media for human use was subjected to quality control assessment in a mouse embryo culture system . Although no differences were seen in the fertilization rates or the proportion of women proceeding to embryo transfer, significant differences were seen in the pregnancy rates . The highest pregnancy rates were obtained using rainwater distilled six times (22/100, 22%) or eight times (40/184, 21.7%), and water polished using a Milli-Q water purifying system (41/181, 22.7%) . Significantly lower pregnancy rates were obtained when the water was purified using an alternative Milli-Q system (9/89, 10.1%) or dam water distilled six times (6/63, 9.5%) . These findings may reflect contamination of local dam water supplies but demonstrate the difficulty in purifying water for the preparation of culture medium.

Sci Total Environ, 1988 Jan, 68, 267 - 73
Waste water treatment for heavy metal toxins using plant and hair as adsorbents; Krishnan SS et al.; The adsorption of cadmium, mercury and lead by Cattails (Typha Plant) and human hair has been investigated to assess their possible use as adsorbents in the treatment of industrial wastewater . Capacity experiments were performed, and it was found that significant amounts of cadmium, mercury and lead were adsorbed by Cattails, while only mercury was adsorbed by hair . Depending upon the concentration, adsorption capacities varied from 1 to 27 mg of metal per gram of adsorbent . The relatively fast uptake of cadmium and lead by Cattail leaves suggests that a continuous process is viable . The results are similar in the case of hair and mercury.

Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1988, 143(6), 415 - 23
{The occurrence of antibiotic resistant coliforms in the waste water of a water treatment plant}; Stelzer W et al.; Colony counts and total coliforms of the investigated biological treatment plant were decreased by more than 90% on average . In activated sludge processes the colony counts increased, whereas total coliforms did not show significant differences between raw sewage and activated sludge processes . With regard to the antibiotics tetracycline, chloramphenicol, kanamycin and gentamicin raw sewage samples contained on average 10(3) antibiotic resistant coliforms/ml . From agar plates supplemented with antibiotics a total of 896 strains were characterized . Single resistant E . coli strains (29.3%) were isolated most frequently from agar plates supplemented with tetracycline . However, coliforms isolated from agar plates which were supplemented with chloramphenicol, kanamycin and gentamicin showed a prevalent resistance to 5 and 6 antibiotics tested . The variety of resistance patterns of gentamicin-resistant coliforms was determined by few plasmids encoding gentamicin resistance only.

Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 1988, 61(1-2), 147 - 9
Chlorinated drinking water XAD isolates do not affect the sister chromatid exchange frequency; Varga C; The influence of conventional water treatment on genotoxic activity was investigated in the in vitro sister chromatid exchange (SCE) test after isolating the organic contaminants with XAD-2/4 and XAD-8 macroreticular resins . A dose-related, SCE-inducing effect could not be detected in the human peripheral lymphocyte system.

Caries Res, 1988, 22(3), 160 - 5
Influence of extraoral xylitol and sucrose dippings on enamel demineralization in vivo; Smits MT et al.; This paper describes the effect of xylitol on demineralized enamel in plaque-free and plaque-covered conditions in vivo . Fissure-like plaque retention grooves were created in 66 human enamel blocks and demineralized in vitro . The blocks were mounted in a prosthesis of 11 participants, who used a 2.5% xylitol, a 2.5% sucrose solution or water extraorally in a randomized cross-over design, for three periods of 16 days . The participants submerged the prosthesis twice a day in the solution during 5 min . Mineral loss and lesion depth were measured before and after the in vivo experiment, using quantitative microradiography and polarized light microscopy . Lesion depth at the surface enamel was +/- 45 microns, at the wall of the grooves +/- 30 microns and at the bottom of the grooves +/- 50 microns before the experiment . After 16 days the lesion depth at the wall of the grooves was +/- 40 microns and at the bottom of the grooves +/- 75 microns . In the grooves no differences were found between the xylitol, the sucrose and the water treatment . At the surface enamel a significant reduction of enamel demineralization was found after the xylitol dippings . The lesion depth at the surface enamel increased 17 microns after the sucrose treatment and 7 microns after the xylitol treatment . The mineral loss after the sucrose and the water treatment were both approximately three times higher than the mineral loss after the xylitol treatment.

Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1988, 143(6), 425 - 33
{Isolation and characterization of gentamicin resistance plasmids of coliform bacteria from the waste water of a water treatment plant}; Stelzer W et al.; Gentamicin resistance coliforms detected continuously in raw and purified waste water samples of a sewage treatment plant made up less than 0.1% of all coliforms . 43.9%; 31.4%; 13.3% and 11.3% of gentamicin-resistant coliforms were identified as Enterobacter, E . coli, Klebsiella and Citrobacter, respectively . R plasmids encoding a gentamicin resistance phenotype were isolated and characterized . They range between 55 and 60 MD in size and belong to 3 incompatibility groups (IncOF, IncM, IncK) . Using restriction endonucleolytic digestion of plasmids, they could be further characterized and subtyped . In contrast to moderate molecular alterations observed among the IncM plasmids, the IncOF plasmids reveal a high stability of restriction pattern . This IncOF plasmid was predominantly found in E . coli wild strains and detected continuously.

Microbiol Sci, 1987 Dec, 4(12), 362 - 4
Bacteriophages as model organisms in water treatment; Havelaar AH; F-specific RNA bacteriophages have great potential as model organisms for monitoring the fate of human viruses in water treatment processes . They are consistently present in large numbers in all kinds of wastewaters and their resistance to inactivation is relatively high . A simple and reliable enumeration method is available.

Arzneimittelforschung, 1987 Oct, 37(10), 1210 - 5
Biotechnology in bulk drug production . Objectives and strategies of process development; Hess PN; Modern biotechnology has an increasing importance especially in waste water treatment and drug production . Depending on the product added values, the objectives of process development differ in degree and importance . For the production of bulk pharmaceutical chemicals these objectives are basically: product safety and operation reliability (concerning levels of sterile engineering and containment categories); short development time and ease of process validation; process economics and flexibility of production . The present paper evaluates these objectives at different boundary conditions and discusses the parameters of process performance and the potential for biological and technical improvements which may be achieved by process development . These considerations help to determine the strategies of process development: to select the appropriate process technologies and to assign the resources for research and development.

Poult Sci, 1987 Oct, 66(10), 1727 - 32
Plasma corticosterone response of turkeys to adrenocorticotropic hormone: age, dose, and route of administration effects; Davis GS et al.; Three trials were conducted to investigate plasma corticosterone (B) levels in Large White turkey hens in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) injections at different ages, doses, and routes of administration . In Trial 1, hens were subjected to one of the following treatments at 10, 15, and 20 wk of age: cold water immersion (5 C for 1 min), ACTH injection (10 IU/kg), or saline injection . The plasma B responses to ACTH and cold water immersion followed the same general pattern in all three age groups . Plasma B levels of hens in the ACTH treatment were depressed below control B levels until 6 h postinjection, when they became elevated . Plasma B levels of hens in the cold water treatment were either similar to or increased above those of controls by 2 h posttreatment and were depressed below control levels at .5 h posttreatment at 10 and 15 wk of age . In Trial 2, three dose levels of ACTH (1, 5, and 10 IU/kg) were injected either intramuscularly (IM) or intravenously (IV) in 10-wk-old hens . There was both a dose and route of administration effect . Of the IM-injected hens, only those in the 1-IU ACTH treatment group had significantly (P less than .05) increased plasma B levels and this occurred 4 h postinjection . However, plasma B levels of the 1 and 5-IU IV-ACTH treatment hens were significantly (P less than .05) elevated at .5 h postinjection . Plasma B of the 10-IU IM and IV-ACTH treatments were consistently, but not significantly, lower than controls through 4 h postinjection.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Vet Q, 1987 Oct, 9(4), 356 - 60
Virus, bacteriophages and water purification; Havelaar AH; Water can be a vector of viral disease, but direct virological analysis of water has logistic and practical limitations . Viruses of major importance for water hygiene (e.g . hepatitis and gastro-enteritis viruses) cannot yet be grown in tissue culture . Therefore, as in bacteriological quality procedures, model organisms are required for the evaluation of virological quality of water and the effectiveness of virus removal by water treatment processes . On the basis of published information, the F specific RNA (FRNA) phages have been chosen for this purpose . For the enumeration of the phages a particular Salmonella typhimurium strain with an artificially introduced F plasmid was developed as a host strain and was found to give accurate and reliable results . FRNA phages were found in very high numbers (10(2)-10(5) pfu/ml) in all types of waste water investigated . FRNA phages are seldom found in non-faecally contaminated waste water . Surprisingly low numbers are found in faeces . FRNA phages in waste water effluent were found to be highly resistant to chloramines and relatively resistant to UV inactivation . The FRNA phages can thus effectively be used as indicator organisms for human pathogenic viruses in the evaluation of disinfection processes for water treatment plants.

J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, 1987 Sep-Dec, 7(7-8), 363 - 72
Removal of higher molecular weight organic compounds by the granular activated carbon adsorption unit process; Stevens AA et al.; The granular activated carbon adsorption unit process in drinking water treatment typically removes purgeable organic compounds for time periods on the order of a few weeks . Experimental evidence indicates that less volatile compounds of generally higher molecular weight than the purgeable fraction, but still detectable by gas chromatography, are efficiently removed for longer periods . Field data substantiate this . Explanatory mechanisms may include stronger adsorption affinities or biodegradation . Non-gas chromatographable, higher molecular weight materials such as humic acids, as measured by Total Organic Carbon (TOC) or trihalomethane formation potential, revert to lower removal efficiencies . Biodegradation may be responsible for a continued long term removal of a fraction of these materials.

J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, 1987 Sep-Dec, 7(7-8), 153 - 68
Prediction of multicomponent adsorption behavior in activated carbon adsorbers: kinetic aspects; Merk W; Although the concentrations of solutes are very low in water treatment, it cannot be expected that the film-diffusion model predicts breakthrough behavior satisfactorily, for the following reasons: most of the solutes have less favorable isotherms than p-nitrophenol or p-chlorophenol; many solutes are much larger molecules and hence have a much higher internal diffusion resistance than p-nitrophenol or p-chlorophenol; and displacement effects cause a much higher internal resistance than expected from single-solute data . Therefore, internal diffusion resistance has to be incorporated into the film-homogeneous diffusion model . All parameters needed in this model can be obtained from batch reactor tests . Multi-solute systems may be regarded as a single-solute system or a bi-solute system, respectively, if all solutes except one or two are present in very different concentrations; and/or have a comparatively small affinity to activated carbon; and/or have a comparatively small internal diffusion coefficient.

Toxicol Ind Health, 1987 Sep, 3(3), 311 - 9
Health among municipal sewage and water treatment workers; Scarlett-Kranz JM et al.; Municipal sewage treatment plant workers are potentially exposed to a multitude of industrial chemicals and pathogenic microorganisms . A questionnaire survey of working habits, lifestyle and symptoms of illness was conducted among 189 municipal sewage treatment plant workers processing between three and ten million gallons of wastewater daily in 16 plants in New York State between March and July of 1984 . Water treatment plant workers in the same cities comprised the comparison group . Sewage workers reported a significantly higher frequency of headache, dizziness, sore throat, skin irritation and diarrhea within the month immediately preceding receipt of the questionnaire, after controlling for various possible confounders . Eye and skin irritation were significantly associated with exposure to mutagens . The health significance of these findings and possible sources of error in assessing risk are discussed.

Arch Environ Health, 1987 Sep-Oct, 42(5), 280 - 5
Effect of chlorine dioxide water disinfection on hematologic and serum parameters of renal dialysis patients; Ames RG et al.; A study of the blood chemistry parameters of 20 renal dialysis patients was undertaken when a local water district introduced chlorine dioxide (CIO2) as a disinfectant at the filtration plant headworks for 12 months without informing the renal dialysis clinic in the area of this potentially adverse change . Due to data limitations, including changes in clinical laboratories and lack of pre-exposure data for some patients, the analysis was focused on 17 patients for whom data was produced by the same clinical laboratory, for 3 months of pre-exposure and 1 month of exposure . Least-squares means of each parameter by CIO2 levels of 0.0 and 1.0 mg/L at the treatment plant were adjusted for age, sex, and creatinine . Water purification at the clinic included passing the water through granular activated carbon, filtration by 5-mu filters, and the use of reverse osmosis . Chlorination products measured at the clinic after this purification and prior to preparation of the dialysate consisted only of chlorite at the 0.02-0.08 mg/L level . No evidence of CIO2-induced anemia was found, nor were any other biologically significant responses observed . Study limitations include several potentially important hematologic parameters which were not measured, the small sample size, and three clinical laboratory changes.

Mutat Res, 1987 Aug, 188(4), 259 - 66
Reaction of chlorine dioxide with amino acids and peptides: kinetics and mutagenicity studies; Tan HK et al.; Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is currently being considered as an alternate to chlorine as a disinfectant for water treatment . Many organic compounds present in water and food treated with ClO2 are subject to oxidation . 21 amino acids and 3 peptides (L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester (aspartame), L-glycyl-L-tryptophan and L-tryptophylglycine) were studied for their reactivity with ClO2 . Chlorine dioxide reacted only with 6 amino acids in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 6.0 . The reaction with cysteine, tryptophan and tyrosine was too rapid to be monitored either iodometrically or spectrophotometrically . The reaction with histidine, hydroxyproline and proline was found to be pseudo-first order . ClO2 readily reacted with L-glycyl-L-tryptophan and L-tryptophylglycine but not with aspartame . Mutagenicity studies with the Salmonella microsome assay of the reaction mixtures of ClO2 with those 6 reactive amino acids and the 3 peptides indicated that the reaction products of the 3 peptides, hydroxyproline, and tyrosine exerted mutagenic activity toward both tester strains of TA98 and TA100 in the presence and absence of rat-liver S9 mix.

Kidney Int, 1987 Jul, 32(1), 96 - 101
Aluminium-related osteomalacia: response to reverse osmosis water treatment; Smith GD et al.; It is generally accepted that aluminium induces osteomalacia in chronic hemodialysis patients by binding to the calcification front, thereby inhibiting mineralization of osteoid . Because this form of osteomalacia is vitamin D resistant, the condition has often been assumed to be irreversible, although promising results have been achieved recently by using a chelating agent for removal of aluminium from the skeleton . In this paper we present four chronic hemodialysis patients with aluminium toxicity and histologic osteomalacia in whom the mineralization defect greatly regressed after the use of reverse osmosis treated-water for dialysis, but without further treatment . In three other patients, also with aluminium toxicity and histologic osteomalacia, similarly treated, the histological severity of the osteomalacia remained static . Those patients in whom bone mineralization status improved developed hyperparathyroidism after reverse osmosis water-treatment, whereas the static patients remained euparathyroid . The results suggest that resolution of aluminium related osteomalacia may occur with reduction in dialysis fluid aluminium, and that parathyroid hormone plays a role in the healing of aluminium related osteomalacia . The therapeutic implications are twofold: attempts to remove all traces of hyperparathyroidism may be detrimental to the bone mineralization status; and stimulation of the parathyroid glands by means of a mild reduction in dialysis fluid calcium may be of value in the management of those cases with persistent osteomalacia and low bone turnover.

Jpn J Cancer Res, 1987 Jun, 78(6), 571 - 6
Enhancing effect of cysteamine hydrochloride on the development of gastroduodenal tumors induced by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine in F344 rats; Jang JJ et al.; The effect of the duodenal ulceration induced by cysteamine hydrochloride on the development of gastroduodenal tumors initiated by N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) was studied in F344 rats of both sexes . Cysteamine (200 mg/kg body wt.) was administered by gastric intubation at various times, before, during or after a 16 week period of MNNG (100 mg/liter in drinking water) treatment . In the preliminary experiment, while the ulcers induced were confined to the proximal duodenum, the pyloric region of the stomach also showed slight erosion . Five of 25 male rats given cysteamine 2 weeks before the start of MNNG treatment developed adenocarcinoma in the duodenum as compared to 1 case in the MNNG alone group . In addition, animals of both sexes which received cysteamine during MNNG treatment yielded significantly increased incidences of adenocarcinoma in the pyloric area of the stomach . In line with earlier reports, the present findings suggest that mucosal damage and subsequent regeneration or proliferation of mucosa are important co-factors for MNNG-induced gastroduodenal carcinogenesis in rats.

J In Vitro Fert Embryo Transf, 1987 Feb, 4(1), 40 - 5
Influence of water quality on in vitro fertilization and embryo development for the mouse; Fukuda A et al.; Mouse in vitro fertilization and embryo culture were performed in media prepared with five different water preparations . The results of the experiments improved with the frequency of distillation . Each water preparation was analyzed by the measurement of the electrical conductivities and inorganic ion concentrations and by high-performance liquid chromatography to examine the mutual relation between water quality and the method of water purification . The best results were obtained with Milli-Q water, which had the lowest concentration of inorganic ions and organic compounds . On the contrary, unexpected contamination by organic compounds and zinc ions occurred after multiple distillation, possibly leached from the glassware and silicon tube . The hatching rate seemed to be an appropriate indicator to assess the biological qualities of media for the development of embryos cultured in vitro.

Sci Total Environ, 1986 Dec 1, 57, 49 - 55
Ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and methyl mercaptides in Finnish municipal sewage plants and pumping stations; Kangas J et al.; Ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulphide and methyl mercaptides were analyzed in the atmospheres of 16 Finnish municipal waste water treatment plants and in 18 pumping stations . The sulphides were analyzed on site as it was found that, with the standard 0.5-l laminated plastic bags, significant amounts of the vapours were lost from the gas phase . The relative humidity of the sampled air was the most likely cause . Under normal operating conditions, sulphides varied from less than 0.07 to 53 micrograms l-1, with highest concentrations found at the sludge presses . Pumping stations had sulphide vapours from 0.07 to 0.5 microgram l-1 . The presence of ammonia (0.007-3.5 micrograms l-1) and methane (0.7-18 micrograms l-1) confirmed the hypothesis of the anaerobic origin of the offensive gases . Although more effective ventilation without scrubbing the emission gases would reduce the health hazard in the plants it would burden the environment.

Toxicol Lett, 1986 Dec, 34(2-3), 141 - 7
Iodination of nutrients in the presence of chlorine based disinfectants used in drinking water treatment; Bercz JP et al.; Under conditions simulating the gastrointestinal tract chlorine dioxide (ClO2), HOCl, and NH2Cl caused covalent organification of iodide to nutrient biochemicals . The extent of binding seemed to be proportional to the electromotive force (EMF) and stoichiometry of the redox couple between iodide and the oxidant . Almost half of 71 nutrients examined were found to bind reactive iodine . Iodide was found to inhibit the quinoidal chromogen formation from tyrosine and ClO2, demonstrating the preferential generation of reactive iodine in complex organic mixtures . These findings indicate that ingestion of residual disinfectants via drinking water may pose a health risk in terms of in vivo generation of iodinated organics . Structure, formation, and biological activity of these compounds are under study.

Am J Epidemiol, 1986 Dec, 124(6), 884 - 93
Urinary mutagens in municipal sewage workers and water treatment workers; Scarlett-Kranz JM et al.; In view of the potential exposure of sewage treatment workers to a multitude of mutagenic substances, the frequency of urinary mutagens was measured by the Ames test among a sample of 164 sewage treatment workers employed in 14 sewage treatment plants which processed between 3 and 10 million gallons of sewage daily in New York State between March and July, 1984 . The frequency was compared to that observed in 72 water treatment employees in the same municipalities . Sewage workers had a significantly higher risk for urinary mutagens after controlling for smoking, using the Ames test, both with and without the addition of the liver microsomal homogenate, S-9 . More precise methods of measuring exposure in epidemiologic studies, particularly in environmental and occupational epidemiology, are in various stages of development . The application of one of these methods, the Ames test, to an occupational group (sewage workers) with potentially high exposure to mutagenic substances is described and the strengths and limitations of this application are discussed.

Semin Nephrol, 1986 Dec, 6(4 Suppl 1), 1 - 4
The metabolism of aluminum and aluminum-related encephalopathy; Mayor GH et al.; The dialysis encephalopathy syndrome is at once the most widely recognized and most severe manifestation of aluminum toxicity . Evidence linking this syndrome and aluminum intoxication is virtually incontrovertible . The syndrome is characterized by speech and motor difficulties, dementia, and seizures . Less widely recognized symptoms include subtle changes in cognition and personality and directional disorientation . Since the widespread use of water treatment, aluminum exposure in the dialysis population has been primarily via intravenous (IV) medications and oral aluminum-containing, phosphate-binding antacid gels . In addition to the encephalopathy syndrome, aluminum has been linked to toxicity in bone, parathyroid gland, RBC, and kidney . These organ toxicities seem to be the result of specific protein enzyme inhibition . Currently identified factors that affect aluminum accumulation and modulate aluminum balance include uremia, renal function, parathyroid hormone withdrawal and suppression, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, and serum aluminum binding . Impaired renal function is not a prerequisite for increased tissue aluminum burdens . It is likely that aluminum-related disease will be increasingly observed in populations other than those with chronic renal failure.

Can J Microbiol, 1986 Dec, 32(12), 922 - 5
Elimination of human enteric viruses during conventional waste water treatment by activated sludge; Payment P et al.; The present study was undertaken to determine if viruses were selectively eliminated during waste water treatment . Human enteric viruses were detected at all steps of treatment in a conventional activated sludge waste water treatment plant . Liquid overlays and large volume sampling with multiple passages on BGM cells permitted the detection of poliovirus (serotypes 1, 2, and 3), coxsackievirus B (serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), and echovirus (serotypes 3, 14, and 22), as well as reoviruses . The mean virus concentration was 95.1 most probable number of infectious units per litre (mpniu/L) in raw sewage, 23.3 in settled water, 1.4 in effluent after activated sludge treatment, and 40.3 mpniu/L in sludge samples . All samples of raw sewage and settled water, 79% of effluent water, and 94% of sludge samples contained viruses . The mean reduction was 75% after settling and 98% after activated sludge treatment . Poliovirus type 3 was rarely isolated after the activated sludge treatment, but was still detected in about one-third of the sludge samples . Reoviruses and coxsackieviruses were detected at similar rates from all samples and appear to be more resistant to the activated sludge treatment than poliovirus type 3 . Poliovirus types 1 and 2 were present in almost every sample of raw sewage and settled water and still found in about half of the effluent and sludge samples, indicating a level of resistance similar to that of reoviruses and coxsackieviruses.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 81 - 7
Contribution of chlorination to the mutagenic activity of drinking water extracts in Salmonella and Chinese hamster ovary cells; Douglas GR et al.; The production of chlorinated by-products through chlorine disinfection of drinking water has been well documented . Natural organic precursors for these chemicals include fulvic and humic acids, the chlorination of which leads to the production of mutagenic compounds . Comparisons of extracts of raw versus treated waters have confirmed that clorination during water treatment produces mutagenic activity in the Salmonella (Ames) test . Present work on XAD-2 extracts of raw and chlorinated water from six municipalities in the Great Lakes region of Canada has involved a battery of mutagenicity assays for various genetic endpoints: the Salmonella test, the sister-chromatid exchange (SCE), and the micronucleus (MN) induction in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells . All extracts of treated (chlorinated), but none of untreated, water were mutagenic in the Salmonella assay . On the other hand, extracts of both treated and untreated water samples showed activity in the SCE and MN assays, but no consistent pattern of response with regard to treatment (chlorination) was evident . These data show that chlorination contributes mutagens to drinking water and suggest that mammalian in vitro assays may be more sensitive for detecting mutagenicity in water samples than the Salmonella test.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 165 - 75
Mutagenic activity of disinfection by-products; Cognet L et al.; Data on raw water quality, disinfection treatment practices, and the resulting mutagenic properties of the treated water were compiled from pilot- and full-scale treatment experiments to evaluate that parameter which might produce variability in the results of a mutagenic study . Analysis of the data and comparison of treatment practices indicated that the measured mutagenic activity is strongly related to the characteristics of the organic matter in the raw water, the methodology used to sample and detect mutagens, the scale of the study both in terms of treatment flow and period of study, and the point at which and the conditions under which oxidants are added during treatment . Conclusions regarding disinfection systems in full-scale water treatment plants include the following: When raw water is pretreated and high concentrations of organics are present in the raw water, both ozonation and chlorination increased mutagenic activity . However, no significant difference in mutagenicity was found between the two oxidants . Both in the case of a nitrified groundwater and a clarified surface water, the mutagenic activity of the water after ozonation was related to its mutagenic activity before ozonation . With ozonation, mutagenic activity decreased after granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration . Thus, when GAC filtration follows ozone disinfection, early addition of oxidants may not be deleterious to the finished water quality . When chlorine or chlorine dioxide is added after GAC filtration, chlorine dioxide was found to produce a less mutagenic water than chlorine . Although these conclusions suggest means of controlling mutagenic activity during treatment, it must be stressed that the measurement of mutagenicity is a presumptive index of contamination level.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 159 - 63
Role of ozone and granular activated carbon in the removal of mutagenic compounds; Bourbigot MM et al.; The identification of certain organic compounds in drinking water has led water treatment specialists to be increasingly concerned about the eventual risks of such pollutants to the health of consumers . Our experiments focused on the role of ozone and granular activated carbon in removing mutagenic compounds and precursors that become toxic after chlorination . We found that if a sufficient dose of ozone is applied, its use does not lead to the creation of mutagenic compounds in drinking water and can even eliminate the initial mutagenicity of the water . The formation of new mutagenic compounds seems to be induced by ozonation that is too weak, although these mutagens can be removed by GAC filtration . Ozone used with activated carbon can be one of the best means for eliminating the compounds contributing to the mutagenicity of water . A combined treatment of ozone and activated carbon also decreases the chlorine consumption of the treated water and consequently reduces the formation of chlorinated organic compounds.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 129 - 39
Results of toxicological testing of Jefferson Parish pilot plant samples; Miller RG et al.; Five toxicological tests were performed using concentrated drinking water samples collected at a pilot-scale drinking water treatment plant that had streams treated with different disinfectants (no disinfectant, ozone, chlorine dioxide, monochloramine, or chlorine) before treatment with granular activated carbon (GAC) . The toxicological tests used in this study were the Ames Salmonella assay, a subchronic in vivo toxicity assay in mice, the SENCAR mouse skin initiation-promotion assay, a rat liver foci assay, and the lung adenoma assay in strain A mice . These tests were conducted to determine the general toxicity and the mutagenic/carcinogenic potential associated with the use of disinfection and/or GAC in the treatment of drinking water . The stability of the mutagenic activity of the samples tested was determined by repeated analysis using the Ames Salmonella assay . Results indicated that the samples remained mutagenic for the duration of the tests . All the drinking water concentrates (4000 X) prepared by the XAD resin adsorption procedure failed to provide statistically significant indication of carcinogenic activity in the SENCAR mouse, rat liver foci, and the lung adenoma assays . However, concentrates of the chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine treated waters gave consistent mutagenic responses in the Ames Salmonella assay . GAC was effective for 6 months in removing both the mutagenicity of chlorine-treated water and the potential of water to become mutagenic when treated with chlorine . In the in vivo, subchronic 30-day toxicity test in mice, some statistically significant differences in organ weights and body weights of animals exposed to different concentrates of some of the samples were observed . However, a consistent pattern of these differences indicating overt toxicity was not detected.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 31 - 44
Occurrence of by-products of strong oxidants reacting with drinking water contaminants--scope of the problem; Rice RG et al.; This paper describes results of a detailed literature review of the organic and inorganic by-products that have been identified as being formed in aqueous solution with four of the strong oxidizing/disinfecting agents commonly employed in drinking water treatment . These agents are: chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and ozone . Significant findings include the production of similar nonchlorinated organic oxidation products from chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone . In addition, all three chlorinous oxidants/disinfectants can produce chlorinated by-products under certain conditions . The presence of chloronitrile compounds in drinking waters is indicated to arise from reactions of chlorine or chloramine to amine/amide functions in amino acids or proteinaceous materials, followed by dehydrohalogenation . These nitriles could hydrolyze to produce the corresponding chloroacetic acids . It is concluded that to minimize the presence of oxidation by-products in drinking waters, the concentrations of oxidizable organic/inorganic impurities should be lowered before any oxidizing agent is added.

Environ Health Perspect, 1986 Nov, 69, 97 - 100
Hypochlorous acid-activated carbon: an oxidizing agent capable of producing hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls; Voudrias EA et al.; Granular activated carbon (GAC), in the presence of dilute aqueous hypochlorite solutions typical of those used in water treatment, was converted to a reagent capable of carrying out free-radical coupling reactions and other oxidations of dilute aqueous solutions of phenols . The products included biphenyls with chlorine and hydroxyl substitution (hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls) . For example, 2,4-dichlorophenol, a common constituent of wastewaters and also natural waters treated with hypochlorite, was converted to 3,5,5'trichloro-2,4'-dihydroxybiphenyl and several related compounds in significant amounts . It is possible that these products pose more of a health hazard than either the starting phenols or the unhydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyl derivatives.

J Pharmacokinet Biopharm, 1986 Oct, 14(5), 495 - 509
Effects of the rate and composition of fluid replacement on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous furosemide; Li T et al.; Effects of differences in the rate and composition of intravenous fluid replacement for urine loss on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of furosemide were evaluated using the dog as a model animal . Each of six dogs received 8-hr constant intravenous infusion of 20 mg (15 mg used in one dog) of furosemide with 0% replacement (treatment I), 50% replacement (treatment II), and 100% replacement (treatment III) with lactated Ringer's solution, as well as with 100% replacement with 5% dextrose in water (treatment IV) . Most pharmacokinetic parameters, such as plasma clearance, steady-state volume of distribution, mean residence time, and terminal half-life, were essentially the same in all four treatments . Renal clearances and urinary excretion rates of the drug in treatments II-IV were essentially the same, but about 20% higher than those in treatment I . In spite of the similarities in kinetic properties, diuretic and/or natriuretic effects from furosemide were markedly different among the four treatments . For example, mean 10-hr urine outputs were 646, 1046, 3156, and 1976 ml and mean 10-hr sodium excretions were 87.0, 142, 383, and 97.2 mmole for treatments I-IV, respectively . Except for treatment III, diuresis and/or natriuresis were found to be time-dependent, generally decreasing with time until reaching a low plateau during later hours of infusion . The present findings also showed that no fluid replacement and 100% replacement with 5% dextrose solution both produced the same degree of severe acute tolerance in natriuresis, indicating the insignificance of water compensation in tolerance development; in treatment II, where neutral sodium balance was achieved, the development of acute tolerance in diuresis and natriuresis can mainly be attributed to negative water balance under this special condition; at steady state the hourly diuresis and natriuresis could differ up to about ten times between treatments . Some implications for the kinetic/dynamic relationship or modeling, in the clinical use, and in the bioequivalence evaluation of dosage forms are discussed.

J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, 1986 Sep-Dec, 7(1-2), 141 - 57
Cancer mortality and the method of chlorination of public drinking water: St . Louis City and St . Louis County, Missouri; Marienfeld CJ et al.; St . Louis City and St . Louis County, Missouri share the same public drinking water source, namely the Missouri River . The 'all cancer' and most organ specific cancer mortality rates have been consistently and considerably higher for St . Louis City than for St . Louis County for the period 1960 through 1972 . A change in the St . Louis County water treatment process, which included increasing the chlorine dosage and delaying the addition of ammonia to form chloramines until just prior to distribution, was instituted in 1955 . St . Louis City has, by contrast, continued the lower chlorine level and early ammoniation . Trend analysis using the period 1960-67 and 1972-76 showed higher percentage as well as net cancer mortality rate per million increases for large bowel, liver and bladder cancers for St . Louis County . An apparent association between a probable increase in trihalomethane production in the St . Louis County water since 1955 and an increase in these specific cancer rates which exceed the increases in the St . Louis City rates appears to have been shown . This does not imply causality but is in general agreement with other studies which have examined water chlorination and cancer mortality.

J Assoc Off Anal Chem, 1986 Sep-Oct, 69(5), 807 - 10
Halogenated phenols in water at forty Canadian potable water treatment facilities; Sithole BB et al.; Samples of raw and treated water were collected once in each of 3 seasons at 40 potable water treatment plants across Canada and were analyzed for phenol and 33 halogenated phenolic compounds including chlorophenols, bromophenols, bromochlorophenols, and chloroguaiacols . Eighteen of the compounds were not found at any treatment plant; phenol and each of the remaining halogenated phenols were found in at least 1 sample . Pentachlorophenol was the only halogenated phenolic compound found in more than 20% of the raw water samples in the fall and winter samples at levels up to 53 ng/L with mean values of 1.9 and 2.8 ng/L, respectively . No halogenated phenols were detected in raw water summer samples . The halogenated phenols found most frequently in treated water samples were 4-chloro-, 2,4-dichloro-, 2,4,6-trichloro-, and bromodichlorophenols . Mean values were less than 15 ng/L and maximum values seldom exceeded 100 ng/L . Most of the positive values for the treated water samples were found at 8 of the 40 treatment plants but no correlations could be found between halogenated phenol levels and raw water type, treatment process, or chemical dosages.

J Appl Bacteriol, 1986 Sep, 61(3), 209 - 18
Virulence plasmid-associated adhesion of Escherichia coli and its significance for chlorine resistance; Hicks SJ et al.; Introduction of the ColV, I-K94 virulence plasmid into strains of Escherichia coli led (for four out of five strains tested) to a marked increase in the ability of organisms to adhere to glass beads . For strain 1829, the plasmid led to increased attachment to other materials including sand, agar, agarose, chitin and cellulose . The increased adhesion to glass beads was due to the presence of the plasmid and not to its introduction into a variant with altered adhesive properties . The plasmid-encoded VmpA protein did not appear to be necessary for the ColV, I-K94-promoted adhesion but adhesion was absolutely dependent on the presence of derepressed levels of transfer components in the ColV+ strains and partially dependent on the presence of colicin components . The extent of the plasmid-promoted adhesion was greatest for organisms grown at 30 degrees, 37 degrees or 42 decrees C and adhesion was almost abolished by growth at 21 degrees or 25 degrees C; this finding is in accord with transfer and colicin components being involved in adhesion . Of several other plasmids tested for their effects on adhesion, those with derepressed transfer properties showed a marked effect as did the RI resistance plasmid . Because of the ease of handling glass bead-attached organisms, such preparations were used as a model for studying the relevance of attachment to the resistance of E . coli to chlorination in the water purification process . Organisms of 1829 ColV, I-K94, attached to glass beads, were more resistant to damage and killing by chlorine than were unattached organisms . Three findings suggest that such chlorine resistance may be significant for survival during water chlorination . Firstly, ColV, I-K94+ bacteria became attached if incubated in sewage effluent with glass beads at 20 degrees C . Secondly, ColV+ organisms already attached to glass beads maintained their attachment during 24 h incubation in effluent at 20 degrees C and thirdly such effluent incubated organisms remained chlorine resistant provided that they retained their attachment.

Brain Res, 1986 Jun, 392(1-2), 11 - 7
The protective effects of vitamin E on microcephaly in rats X-irradiated in utero: DNA, lipid peroxide and confronting cisternae; Tanaka H et al.; Fetuses from rats given either water or 0.03% D,L-alpha-tocopherol acetate (vitamin E) as a drinking fluid and X-irradiated with 100 rad on gestational day 13 were examined on gestational day 21 . Mean cerebral weight which was significantly reduced by the X-irradiation was increased by vitamin E supplementation but the level did not reach that in sham-irradiated controls . Administration of vitamin E caused an increase in DNA concentration which was significantly reduced by X-irradiation with water treatment . An increase in the mean level of lipid peroxide formation was observed in the water-treated, X-irradiated group in the sample at zero time but not in the vitamin E-treated, X-irradiated group . In the cytoplasm of fetal cerebral neurons from X-irradiated dams with vitamin E supplementation, confronting cisternae were frequently observed between two nuclear envelopes . Confronting cisternae may be considered as a repair mechanism of vitamin E against X-irradiated neuronal damage in the fetal cerebrum . This study provides evidence of the protection by vitamin E of neuronal development in X-irradiated fetuses, through its antioxidant properties, against attacks by free radicals and/or lipid peroxide.

Int J Epidemiol, 1986 Jun, 15(2), 252 - 6
Human behaviour and the transmission of dracunculiasis: a case study from the Ilorin area of Nigeria; Watts SJ; Dracunculiasis, infection with guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, is a debilitating disease causing considerable human misery and having an adverse impact on food production in affected areas . It can be entirely eradicated by the provision of protected drinking water for all members of the community . There are two phases in the transmission cycle associated with human activities, swallowing the infective guinea worm larvae in infected water and, 10-12 months later, the immersion of a limb with a guinea worm lesion on it in a drinking water source . In planning control strategies it is essential to understand the patterns of behaviour associated with these two phases of transmission . These include water consumption, water use and water treatment, patterns of water collection and population mobility . The recent increase in the levels, frequency and distance involved in population circulation is associated with increased prevalence rates . This analytical framework is used in a study of disease transmission in the area within a 50 kilometer radius of Ilorin, the capital of Kwara State, Nigeria . The conclusion briefly suggests some benefits which might accrue to affected areas as the result of the consideration of behavioural factors involved in disease transmission.

Am J Pathol, 1986 Jun, 123(3), 577 - 84
The influence of hypertonic NaCl on nucleocytoplasmic translocation of RNA in the rat liver; Sidransky H et al.; Hypertonic NaCl administered to rats or mice has been demonstrated to induce in the liver a rapid disaggregation of polyribosomes and inhibition of protein synthesis . This study was concerned with whether hypertonic NaCl would affect nucleocytoplasmic translocation of RNA in the livers of rats . The effect of tube-feeding a hypertonic (10.7%) NaCl solution (321 mg in 3 ml/100 g body wt) for 10 minutes on in vitro release of 14C-orotate-labeled nuclear RNA was assayed . Although the combination of nuclei and cytosols of livers of hypertonic NaCl-treated rats revealed diminished in vitro labeled nuclear RNA release in comparison with hepatic nuclei and cytosols of control (water-treated) rats, each of the two components varied in activity . Even though the overall effect was an inhibitory one, cytosols of livers of hypertonic NaCl-treated rats stimulated in vitro release of labeled nuclear RNA, whereas nuclei of livers of hypertonic NaCl-treated rats revealed diminished in vitro release of labeled nuclear RNA in comparison with cytosols and nuclei of livers of control rats . The stimulatory effect of the hepatic cytosols of the hypertonic NaCl-treated rats was essentially unaffected by pretreatment of the rats with puromycin or cycloheximide, but was abolished by pretreatment of the cytosols in vitro with alpha-mannosidase or beta-galactosidase . Passage of cytosols of control and experimental livers through concanavalin A-agarose columns concentrated the activities of the eluates in stimulating in vitro labeled nuclear RNA release . In vivo 14C-orotate labeling of hepatic nuclear RNA for 30 minutes was increased by hypertonic NaCl treatment in comparison with water treatment of control animals . In vivo 14C-glucosamine incorporation into hepatic proteins of nuclei and nuclear envelopes was increased in hypertonic NaCl-treated rats in comparison with controls . In vitro 3H-tryptophan binding to proteins (trichloracetic acid-precipitable) to cytosols of livers of hypertonic NaCl-treated rats was increased in comparison with binding of controls . The results suggest that the administration of hypertonic NaCl rapidly leads to a change in hepatic cytosol whereby the activity to stimulate in vitro labeled nuclear RNA release is enhanced . This occurs without new protein synthesis, and the effect is probably mediated through a glycoprotein . In contrast, the hepatic nuclei of the rats treated with hypertonic NaCl show a decreased ability to release in vitro labeled nuclear RNA, possibly because of the development of a nuclear lesion.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1986 May, 51(5), 1047 - 55
Recovery and diversity of heterotrophic bacteria from chlorinated drinking waters; Maki JS et al.; Heterotrophic bacteria were enumerated from the Seattle drinking water catchment basins and distribution system . The highest bacterial recoveries were obtained by using a very dilute medium containing 0.01% peptone as the primary carbon source . Other factors favoring high recovery were the use of incubation temperatures close to that of the habitat and an extended incubation (28 days or longer provided the highest counts) . Total bacterial counts were determined by using acridine orange staining . With one exception, all acridine orange counts in chlorinated samples were lower than those in prechlorinated reservoir water, indicating that chlorination often reduces the number of acridine orange-detectable bacteria . Source waters had higher diversity index values than did samples examined following chlorination and storage in reservoirs . Shannon index values based upon colony morphology were in excess of 4.0 for prechlorinated source waters, whereas the values for final chlorinated tap waters were lower than 2.9 . It is not known whether the reduction in diversity was due solely to chlorination or in part to other factors in the water treatment and distribution system . Based upon the results of this investigation, we provide a list of recommendations for changes in the procedures used for the enumeration of heterotrophic bacteria from drinking waters.

J Dairy Sci, 1986 Apr, 69(4), 1013 - 9
Effects of drinking water temperature on production responses in lactating Holstein cows in summer; Milam KZ et al.; During late summer, 24 lactating Holstein cows were offered 10 or 28 degrees C (control) drinking water ad libitum at 1400 h for 10 min to investigate the effects on respiration rates, body temperatures, dry matter intake, and milk production . Experimental design was a 2 X 3 factorial arrangement of the two drinking water temperatures with .8, 1.1, and 1.4% dietary potassium associated with another experiment . Following 1 wk adjustment and 1 wk standardization, cows were blocked by dry matter intake as a percentage of body weight within parity and randomly assigned to treatments within blocks . Cows were denied access to water from 0900 until 1400 h . Respiration rates and rectal temperatures were recorded before and after watering . Tympanic membrane temperatures (8/h) were recorded during the comparison period using 4 cows per water treatment . No interaction occurred between water and potassium . Water at 10 degrees C had a greater cooling effect than 28 degrees C water . No differences were found between treatments in respiration rates and rectal temperatures after drinking water was temperatures after drinking water was offered . Chilled drinking water decreased tympanic membrane temperatures, which remained lower longer . Cows that drank 10 degrees C drinking water increased dry matter intake and milk yield.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1986 Apr, 182(2), 216 - 36
{Emission of microorganisms from sewage treatment plants depending upon construction differences of single structural parts}; Eikmann T et al.; In order to examine the influence exerted by the differing design of individual water treatment plant units on the emission rate of micro-organisms and the associated degree of exposure to which plant personnel is subjected, measurements were taken at three different types of treatment plants . Measurements were made using "Biotest" RCS Air Samplers . The total count of colonies was determined by means of Agar Strips GK-A (tryptic soy agar) . Enterobacteriaceae were quantitatively ascertained using Agar Strips C (MacConkey agar), particular attention being paid to the determination of the coliform bacteria as faeces indicators . Agar Strips S (mannitol salt agar) were used to measure the count of staphylococci using Agar Strips HS (rosa Bengal streptomycin agar) . Before taking measurements, the prevailing climatic conditions were recorded . It could be ascertained that the enclosure of the inflow area (screw conveyor pump station and aerated grit removal tank) lead to a considerable increase in the concentration of microorganisms in the air within the housing . The values dropped however, when adequate ventilation was provided . Differing oxygen in the activated sludge tanks - finebubble aeration at the tank bottom or the blowing in of air via centrifugal blowers - lead to large variations in the emission rates . However, the less the waste water is agitated, the lower the emission rates . In the case of fine-bubble aeration, rates which are also normally to be found in the "non-burdened" outside air were even recorded close to the aeration tank . In cases of centrifugal blower, the aeration tank should be covered with a shield . With this type of aeration the waste water is emitted radially towards the walls of the tank . The use of a sprinkler unit on an aeration tank equipped with centrifugal blower - to avoid foam formation on the surface of the water - does not lead to an increase in the already high emission rate . An increase in air pollution through mould fungi from waste water treatment plants could not be found . In conclusion, it can be said that different individual plant unit designs have a large influence on the concentration of micro-organisms in the ambient air of places of work of waste water treatment plant personnel . Emission rates can be limited to such a degree that, even in the immediate vicinity of the plant units, a decrease of micro-organism concentrations can be attained as comparable to the area outside the treatment plant.

Can J Microbiol, 1986 Mar, 32(3), 226 - 30
Predominant bacterial genera in granular activated carbon water treatment systems; Burlingame GA et al.; Granular activated carbon (GAC) beds may be used for removal of dissolved organic matter during the treatment of drinking water . However, they might also change the microbiological quality of the water entering the distribution system either by changing the predominant bacteria or the bacterial density of the treated water . A 3-year pilot plant study of water treatment using GAC beds was conducted at the Baxter Water Treatment Plant in Philadelphia . During the study, bacteria were isolated from the raw water and from the effluents of the GAC treatment units . At the end of the study, bacteria were also isolated from the GAC units and from sand beds operated in parallel with the GAC units . Bacterial genera in the GAC effluents and in the GAC units themselves were similar to those found in the raw water and in the sand beds . Prechlorination and (or) preozonation of the water before GAC treatment had no noticeable effect on the bacterial genera found as compared with GAC unit having no predisinfection . The bacterial genera found in this study were similar to those found in seven other studies of GAC water treatment that used a variety of treatment schemes and a variety of heterotrophic plate count techniques to evaluate bacterial populations . From these several studies it appears that GAC treatment does not change the nature of the bacterial populations associated with drinking water.

Am J Ind Med, 1986, 9(3), 271 - 9
Health effects of work at waste water treatment plants: a review of the literature with guidelines for medical surveillance; McCunney RJ; Potential health hazards associated with work at waste water treatment plants include bacteria, viruses and protozoa in domestic waste and heavy metals and other hazardous substances in industrial wastes . The primary exposure route for hazardous material is through inhalation of aerosols generated in the secondary phase of water treatment that contain pathogenic organisms . Although few epidemiological studies have investigated the health of waste water treatment facility workers, hazards noted have been limited to acute, self-limited gastrointestinal illnesses . Due to the potential for long term or subtle adverse health effects, a medical surveillance program is proposed that includes attention to infectious diseases, such as hepatitis and to illness/absenteeism records.

Nephrologie, 1986, 7(4), 153 - 6
{Possible release of aluminum from activated charcoal filters used in home hemodialysis}; Jourdan JL et al.; In 1984, 38 sera from home hemodialysis patients were found with a significant increase of aluminum (Al) from 67.8 +/- 44.3 to 102.0 +/- 45.9 micrograms/l (p less than 0.001) compared to 1983 . The only change was an activated charcoal (AC) filter in the water treatment circuit, added downstream of the water softener . Five different home hemodialysis AC filters were tested: Microclean CA Dia Cuno, Traitement Standard des Eaux (TSE)R, Permo, C2R, Gambro . AC was shown to be the main source of Al, its content ranging from 1251 +/- 116 to 7569 +/- 969 mg/kg . Al released in 2000 l of liter rinsing water varied from 1.6 +/- 1.3 to 41.3 +/- 5.5 mg . (mean concentration: 0.8 to 20.6 micrograms/l): Gambro less than or equal to C2R less than TSE less than Permo less than Cuno (p less than 0.01) . Al loading of charcoal could occur either before or during the activation process, by contaminated water, other added substances, or during packaging . In conclusion, our study suggests, first, to put AC filters upstream of Al captor to avoid Al intoxication, second, to systematically dose Al and may be other metallic substances in every manufactured AC sold for therapeutic purpose.

Environ Mutagen, 1986, 8(2), 253 - 62
Mutagenicity studies in Salmonella: residues of ozonated and/or chlorinated water fulvic acids; Kowbel DJ et al.; Aqueous residues of ozonated, chlorinated, and ozonated/chlorinated water fulvic acids (WFA) were tested for induction of His+ reversion in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 in fluctuation tests for mutagenicity . The data suggest that ozonation of natural organics present in sources of drinking water can prevent subsequent formation of by-products of chlorination that are mutagenic in bacteria . Ozonation of the WFA at different pH and at varying dose levels produced residues that were not or were only weakly mutagenic . Chlorination of WFA or of previously ozonated WFA led to residues that were highly mutagenic . However, mutagen formation in the ozonated/chlorinated residues could be prevented, depending upon the pH of the WFA solutions during ozonation-mutagenicity decreased as pH increased . This decrease in mutagenicity is associated with previous observations of enhanced ozone decomposition into its highly reactive oxidant species at higher pH . Since ozonation seems to be more effective at alkaline pH, alkaline raw water sources seem to be the best candidates for water treatment that involves ozonation.

Nephron, 1986, 44(3), 212 - 6
Center-specific variations of thyroid hormone serum levels in hemodialysis patients; Weissel M et al.; Thyroid hormone (free and total thyroxine, total 3,5,3'- and 3,3'5'-triiodothyronine, thyroxine-binding globulin, thyrotropin) serum concentrations were measured in 107 uremic patients of 4 hemodialysis centers, in order to study the prevalence of hypothyroidism in hemodialysis patients . In accordance with the clinical impression there was no laboratory evidence of thyroid dysfunction . In spite of the fact that all patients had the expected low-T3 syndrome, there were highly significant differences between the mean thyroid hormone concentrations of the 4 different centers . The center with the highest thyroid hormone levels (all normal except for borderline low 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine) also had the lowest urea levels, indicating the relatively best metabolic control . One center had significantly lower hormone levels than the other 3 centers (all hormones except free thyroxine were below normal) with urea levels that did not differ significantly from one of these centers . A retrospective analysis of patients and of the techniques of dialysis of 3 centers excluded factors like heparin or the length of time on dialysis to be the reason for the low values of this center . Finally, only the significantly higher proportion of unsuccessfully transplanted patients and some technical differences (lack of water treatment, regenerated cellulose as dialyser membrane, and low magnesium content in the dialysate) unique for this center remained as possible factors that may speculatively explain the observed low thyroid hormone values.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Soc Sci Med, 1986, 23(10), 975 - 82
The comparative study of patterns of guinea worm prevalence as a guide to control strategies; Watts SJ; Guinea worm, a parasite found in unprotected drinking water sources, causes considerable morbidity and loss of agricultural production among rural people in India and West Africa . A comparative study of village level prevalence data in the two regions reveals marked contrasts in the level and characteristics of prevalence which are useful guidelines in planning control strategies where little is known about local guinea worm epidemiology . Prevalence rates of up to 75-80% of the total population of a settlement have been found in West Africa, far higher than those in India . The higher figure indicates that all members of a community are exposed to a common infected drinking water source . Here the infection affects all sections of the population who do not treat their water at the household level . In India levels of prevalence for males are far higher than for females, whereas in West Africa the difference in infection rates between the sexes is less marked . In India many men are infected when they are away from the village, attending festivals or farming, and exposed to untreated water sources; women and children travel less and use domestic water sources which are more likely to be treated in some way . Differences in prevalence characteristics according to age, sex or social/economic grouping should be taken into account when planning national and local control campaigns . For example, in Nigeria where women are as likely to suffer from the infection as men, women are the main water collectors and contaminators, and are responsible for domestic water treatment; thus they should be fully involved in control campaigns.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Int J Rad Appl Instrum {A}, 1986, 37(11), 1103 - 9
Radiation induced decomposition of biological resistant pollutants in water; Getoff N; Data and reaction mechanisms for oxidative decomposition of biological resistant chlorinated hydrocarbons in aerated water under the influence of ionizing radiation are reported . The radiolysis of the pollutants was studied as a function of the absorbed radiation dose, whereby the formation of C1- ions served as an indicator for the degradation process . In addition phenol was also investigated as a representative of aromatic compounds . Based on the experimental data a radiation pretreatment of water is proposed followed by conventional methods for water purification.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 299 - 315
Alternative methods for chlorination; Fiessinger F et al.; Existing disinfectants are oxidative agents which all present negative effects on subsequent treatment processes . None of them has decisive advantages over chlorine, although chlorine-dioxide and chloramines might at times be preferable . Optimum treatment practices will improve the removal of organic precursors before final disinfection which could then consist in a light chlorine addition . A philosophy of radical change in water treatment technology encompassing physical treatment without chemicals such as membrane filtration, solid disinfectants is presented.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 487 - 503
Drinking water and health hazards in environmental perspective; Zoeteman BC; Among the present environmental issues drinking water quality and more specifically organic micropollutants receive not the highest priority . The long tradition of potable water quality assurance and the sophisticated evaluation methodologies provide a very useful approach which has great potential for wider application in environmental research and policy making . Water consumption patterns and the relative importance of the drinking water exposure route show that inorganic water contaminants generally contribute much more to the total daily intake than organic micropollutants . An exception is chloroform and probably the group of typical chlorination by-products . Among the carcinogenic organic pollutants in drinking water only chlorination by-products may potentially increase the health risk . Treatment should therefore be designed to reduce chemical oxidant application as much as possible . It is expected that in the beginning of next century organic micropollutants will receive much less attention and that the present focus on treatment by-products will shift to distribution problems . Within the total context of water quality monitoring microbiological tests will grow in relative importance and might once again dominate chemical analysis the next century . As disinfection is the central issue of the present water treatment practice the search for the ideal disinfection procedure will continue and might result in a further reduction in the use of chemical oxidants.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 45 - 58
The control of organics in drinking water in Canada and the United States (standards, legislation and practice); Toft P; Both the United States and Canada have a federal form of government, but approaches used in the two countries to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies differ . The Environmental Protection Agency currently enforces regulations for 10 organic chemicals (including 6 pesticides) under the Safe Drinking Water Act and provides advice on others through its health advisory program . Canada, however, does not have similar legislation, but rather provides health-related guidelines for 21 organic chemicals (including 16 pesticides) which are used by the provincial agencies responsible for drinking water supplies . Both countries are in the process of revising their standards and will include a variety of additional synthetic organic chemicals . Where possible, standards are set using a calculated acceptable daily intake usually derived from animal feeding experiments . Procedures for setting standards for carcinogens involve a blend of risk estimation coupled with consideration of the feasibility of reducing the risk in light of socio-economic factors . Most drinking water treatment plans in North America utilize 'conventional' treatment . Some now employ modifications in order to minimize trihalomethane formation . A few use aeration or granular activated carbon to remove synthetic organic chemicals.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 187 - 94
Formation of linear aldehydes during surface water preozonization and their removal in water treatment in relation to mutagenic activity and sum parameters; Van Hoof F et al.; Low molecular weight aldehydes were formed during surface water preozonization, their levels showing a positive correlation with increasing ozone dose applied and with increasing water temperature . A strong negative correlation was observed between aldehyde levels and U.V . absorbance at 254 nm . Coagulation had no influence on the aldehydes present and the influence of rapid double layer filtration varied strongly with temperature: significant removals were only observed above 10 degrees C . Mutagenic activity generated by preozonization in Salmonella typhimurium TA98 shows an ozone dose depending relationship different from the formation of linear aldehydes . Its removal by coagulation is not effective but rapid double layer filtration reduces mutagenic activity to marginal levels . In this respect too no clear parallel can be drawn between the presence of low molecular weight aldehydes and mutagenic activity.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 137 - 53
The influence of water treatment processes on the presence of organic surrogates and mutagenic compounds in water; Van der Gaag MA et al.; The effects of granular activated carbon filtration and of the combination of ozonation and GAC filtration on the quality of Rhine water were studied in a pilot plant . The scope of the study was to compare both systems in relation to the removal of organic contaminants in water, and to the reduction of the side effects of chlorination . The water quality was measured with organic surrogate parameters (organohalogen, -nitrogen, -phosphorus and -sulphur) and in bacterial mutagenicity assays . In this particular setting, the combination of ozonation and GAC filtration was superior in all points to GAC filtration alone . The effects of ozonation are sometimes quite different, depending on the type of water treated . Its positive influence should be confirmed in a local situation . As GAC treatment causes a shift towards formation of more brominated THM after chlorination, special attention was given to this item . A higher inorganic bromide/DOC ratio resulted in higher brominated THM concentrations after chlorination . However, the mutagens formed during chlorination in presence of more inorganic bromide could be inactivated more easily by rat liver homogenate than in the normal setting . The results of this study confirmed earlier findings stating a negative influence of chlorination on water quality.

Sci Total Environ, 1985 Dec, 47, 121 - 35
Developments in biotechnology of relevance to drinking water preparation; Janssen DB et al.; This paper discusses strategies to increase the feasibility of microorganisms for the removal of toxic xenobiotics from waste water and drinking water . Based on the principles of adaptational mutations and genetic exchange of catabolic activities, it becomes possible to select and engineer microorganisms that are suitable for the degradation of recalcitrant compounds . The detailed biochemical knowledge that is required for this is now rapidly evolving, and especially for the degradation of chlorinated organics several detoxifying dehalogenation mechanisms have been studied in detail . The feasibility of specialized bacteria for waste and water treatment will be dependent on the possibility to obtain stable performance and maintenance in treatment systems.

Environ Health Perspect, 1985 Nov, 63, 121 - 6
Influence of acid rain upon water plumbosolvency; Moore MR; The West of Scotland has had particular problems in the past associated with soft acidic water supplies and uptake of lead from domestic plumbing systems by such water . As a consequence of this, health problems related to overexposure to lead have been identified . The current debate on acidification of ground waters by acid rain is therefore particularly pertinent to this area . Studies have shown that even a modest decrease in pH will result in very substantial increase in plumbosolvency . This was found to be of particular importance in the city of Glasgow and town of Ayr, where prior to water treatment, pH values were 6.3 and 5.4, respectively, and where, consequentially, large numbers of homes did not comply with lead in water standards . Closed-loop lime-dosing systems were introduced in both Glasgow and Ayr to increase the pH with immediate decrease in the lead content of the water and, subsequently, blood lead concentrations of the subjects living in these areas . Such closed-loop systems will compensate for any acidity in water supplies, whether of natural origin or originating from acid rain precipitation . However, when such treatment has not been applied, any increase in water acidity due to acid rain which is, in many cases, already unacceptable . which is, in many cases, already unacceptable.

J Infect Dis, 1985 Nov, 152(5), 1013 - 9
Infections with Mycobacterium chelonei in patients receiving dialysis and using processed hemodialyzers; Bolan G et al.; Between April and November 1982, 27 of 140 patients in a hemodialysis center in Louisiana were infected with rapidly growing mycobacteria; 14 had bacteremia alone, 3 had soft-tissue infections, 1 had an access-graft infection, and 9 had widely disseminated disease . Of 26 identified isolates, 25 were Mycobacterium chelonei ssp . abscessus, and one was an M . chelonei-like organism . One factor common to all patients was exposure to processed hemodialyzers (artificial kidneys) . Environmental sampling of the water-treatment system showed widespread contamination with nontuberculous mycobacteria, which were also recovered from the patient's side (blood compartment) of five of 31 hemodialyzers that had been processed and were ready for use . The formaldehyde concentration was less than 2% in two of three such contaminated dialyzers tested . We hypothesize that patients became infected when their blood circulated through processed dialyzers that contained viable rapidly growing mycobacteria . This outbreak demonstrates that hemodialysis patients may be at risk for developing infections with rapidly growing mycobacteria and that such infections may go unrecognized when routine culture methods are used . It also emphasizes the importance of using effective procedures to disinfect dialyzers in hemodialysis centers.

Environ Health Perspect, 1985 Nov, 63, 169 - 80
Impact of effects of acid precipitation on toxicity of metals; Nordberg GF et al.; Acid precipitation may increase human exposure to several potentially toxic metals by increasing metal concentrations in major pathways to man, particularly food and water, and in some instances by enhancing the conversion of metal species to more toxic forms . Human exposures to methylmercury are almost entirely by way of consumption of fish and seafood . In some countries, intakes by this route may approach the levels that can give rise to adverse health effects for population groups with a high consumption of these food items . A possible increase in methylmercury concentrations in fish from lakes affected by acid precipitation may thus be of concern to selected population groups . Human exposures to lead reach levels that are near those associated with adverse health effects in certain sensitive segments of the general population in several countries . The possibility exists that increased exposures to lead may be caused by acid precipitation through a mobilization of lead from soils into crops . A route of exposure to lead that may possibly be influenced by acid precipitation is an increased deterioration of surface materials containing lead and a subsequent ingestion by small children . A similar situation with regard to uptake from food exists for cadmium (at least in some countries) . Human metal exposures via drinking water may be increased by acid precipitation . Decreasing pH increases corrosiveness of water enhancing the mobilization of metal salts from soil; metallic compounds may be mobilized from minerals, which may eventually reach drinking water . Also, the dissolution of metals (Pb, Cd, Cu) from piping systems for drinking water by soft acidic waters of high corrosivity may increase metal concentrations in drinking water . Exposures have occasionally reached concentrations which are in the range where adverse health effects may be expected in otherwise healthy persons . Dissolution from piping systems can be prevented by neutralizing the water before distribution . Increased aluminum concentrations in water is a result mainly of the occurrence of Al in acidified natural waters and the use of Al chemicals in drinking water purification . If such water is used for dialysis in patients with chronic renal failure, it may give rise to cases of dialysis dementia and other disorders . A possible influence on health of persons with normal renal function (e.g., causing Alzheimer's disease) is uncertain and requires further investigation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Am J Kidney Dis, 1985 Nov, 6(5), 348 - 52
Aluminum-induced anemia; Kaiser L et al.; Although many questions still remain unanswered, it is clear that aluminum causes a microcytic hypoproliferative anemia and is one factor responsible for worsening anemia in patients with end-stage renal disease . Time course studies in a rat model have shown that the anemia is preceded by microcytosis; this has not yet been examined in man . The exact mechanism of aluminum-induced anemia is unknown, however it appears to involve inhibition of heme synthesis, either by inhibition of enzyme activity or interference with iron incorporation or utilization . The interrelationship between aluminum and iron, zinc, lead, or other metals in this anemia is also unknown, as are the effects of aluminum on erythroid colony forming units . The role of parathyroid hormone on aluminum-induced anemia has not been examined . Presently treatment of aluminum-induced anemia involves removal of the source of the aluminum, although recent studies with desferrioxamine show promise . It is unclear, however, exactly how desferrioxamine improves this anemia . It is clear, however, that aluminum in the dialysate can cause clinical problems including anemia, and that these problems can be substantially reduced if not eliminated by water treatment.

Poult Sci, 1985 Nov, 64(11), 2189 - 94
Adrenal cortical response of tom poults; Davis GS et al.; In each of two trials, plasma corticosterone (B) was measured in Large White turkey tom poults after the following treatments were applied: 1) .9% saline injected; 2) cold water immersion, and 3) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) injected (10 IU/kg body weight) . Poults were treated at 3- to 4-day intervals from the day of hatching to 21 days of age . Plasma samples were obtained at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 hr posttreatment . In both trials, there was a depression in B levels within the first 3 hr following ACTH or cold water immersion treatment . Significant increases in plasma B levels of the cold water treatment occurred at 4 hr posttreatment in Trial 1 in 7-day-old poults and in Trial 2 in 21-day-old poults . A significant adrenal cortical response to ACTH injection was observed in 3- and 7-day-old poults at 6 hrs posttreatment in Trial 2 . Plasma B concentrations were also measured in three groups of nontreated Large White tom poults on the day of hatching at a commercial hatchery . Plasma samples were obtained from poults in incubators at 1000 hr, immediately following commercial processing procedures at 1030 hr, and at poult placement at 1330 hr . Plasma B levels of poults sampled in the incubator and after processing were similar . However, B levels of poults sampled at placement were increased significantly above the other two groups.

Environ Res, 1985 Oct, 38(1), 67 - 76
Successful abatement of lead exposure from water supplies in the West of Scotland; Moore MR et al.; A major problem has existed in the West of Scotland for at least the past century associated with lead uptake by water from leaden water distribution systems . Initial studies in Glasgow from 1969 to 1976 and in Ayr in 1980/1981 showed that not only were water supplies soft, acid in consequence highly plumbosolvent, and that water lead levels were, on average, unacceptably high but that blood lead concentrations were also in excess of acceptable limits . A decision was therefore made by Strathclyde Water Department to carry out remedial water treatment to adjust the water pH . The success of this venture was proven by the parallel rapid falls in blood lead and water lead concentrations in the city of Glasgow . This encouraged the Water Department to institute a similar scheme in the town of Ayr . Work on this commenced in 1981, and in a study of the participants in a previous blood lead survey, a highly significant fall in blood lead concentrations was observed . The equation linking these two parameters was found to follow a curvilinear relationship where blood lead varied as the cube root of the water lead with a highly significant coefficient of correlation . This relationship has been shown to hold across a wide range of water lead concentrations down to 1 microgram/liter . This detailed information allows accurate calculation of acceptable limits of lead exposure from specific sources based upon acceptable blood lead concentrations.

Lab Anim, 1985 Oct, 19(4), 273 - 4
Inactivation of bacteria and viruses in water: passage of germicidal ultraviolet light through Teflon; Wallbank AM et al.; Teflon pipe as used in a water purification system transmitted germicidal ultraviolet (UV) light to inactivate Pseudomonas aeruginosa and poliovirus . The information is useful for animal care workers and others concerned with the prevention of microbial growth in water systems such as deionizers and distilled water . Of special significance is that there is a plastic that transmits UV light.

Int J Epidemiol, 1985 Sep, 14(3), 420 - 31
Factors affecting blood lead concentrations in the UK: results of the EEC blood lead surveys, 1979-1981; Quinn MJ; Surveys of blood lead concentrations carried out in the UK under the EEC screening programme for lead covered 8500 people . Blood lead analyses were subject to stringent quality assurance schemes . Significant variations in blood lead were found with age and sex, smoking and drinking habits, social class (in children), age of dwelling and geographical location but not with social class in adults, or with ethnic origin . Blood lead concentrations in childhood exposed to leadworks fell in 1981 following efforts to reduce emissions and improve workers' hygiene . Levels in those living near major roads were not very different from those in the general population in the same area . The highest blood lead concentrations were related to plumbosolvent water; lower levels in 1981 confirmed the effectiveness of remedial water treatment . Broadly similar effects of personal, social and environmental factors on blood lead have been found in other major studies . The findings that several geographical, environmental and personal factors were significantly related to the blood lead concentrations of children and adults have implications for all studies of blood lead concentrations in the general population.

Rev Infect Dis, 1985 Jul-Aug, 7(4), 536 - 46
Selective primary health care: strategies for control of disease in the developing world . XX . Typhoid fever; Hornick RB; The incidence of typhoid fever remains unacceptably high in developing countries . Because Salmonella typhi is disseminated by carriers, there is an urgent need to increase the rate of detection of carriers and to decrease the risk they pose to their communities . In urban areas where sewage disposal is lacking or inadequate, public water supplies are contaminated and typhoid fever is common . The contamination of food by carriers is the second commonest route of infection . Water purification processes lead to a rapid decline in the incidence of the disease; thus, many developing countries hope to develop pure water supplies for all citizens by the end of this century . Until this important public health goal is achieved, the use of vaccine, especially in children, could cause a significant decrease in the incidence of typhoid fever . A new oral attenuated vaccine promises to be effective and safe.

Poult Sci, 1985 Jun, 64(6), 1148 - 56
The effect of autoclaving and enzyme supplementation of guar meal on the performance of chicks and laying hens; Patel MB et al.; Four experiments with broilers and one with laying hens were conducted to study the effects of processing and hemicellulase supplementation of guar meal (37.0% protein) on growth, feed efficiency, and egg production . Guar meal at 0, 10, and 15%, either in raw form or autoclaved at 100, 102, or 132 C for 3, 15, or 30 min, was fed alone or in the presence of 0 to 250 ppm hemicellulase . In an experiment utilizing full-term broilers, 10 and 15% autoclaved guar meal was fed in the presence of lincomycin (3.3 ppm) or in combination with lincomycin and hemicellulase (25 ppm) . The laying hen experiment was conducted with 36-week-old hens for 8 weeks . They were fed the raw or autoclaved meal (102 C, 15 min) alone and in combination with 30 ppm hemicellulase . The raw guar meal depressed growth and the depression was dose-related . Autoclaving at 102 C for 15 min increased growth and feed efficiency . A higher temperature or a longer time of autoclaving failed to give any further increase in growth or feed efficiency . The lowest (16.5 ppm) hemicellulase was as effective as the highest (250 ppm) in increasing growth and feed efficiency of chicks when added to guar meal diets . Penicillin had no effect on growth or feed efficiency when added to the diet containing autoclaved guar meal in the presence of hemicellulase . Dry heating at 150 C for 6 hr or water treatment of guar meal was not effective in stimulating growth or feed efficiency . Guar meal also increased stickiness of droppings; autoclaving enhanced the effect, whereas hemicellulase prevented the sticky droppings.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1985 May, 180(5-6), 448 - 58
{Qualitative and quantitative determination of bacterial populations in an aquatic environment . 8 . Variation of the species spectrum during a drinking-water treatment process}; Dott W; Water treatment processes such as aeration, gravel filtration, ozonation, activated-carbon filtration and chlorination causes variation in the number of bacteria as well as the development or die off of specific species . The number of bacteria was always reduced to a large extent if ozone or chlorine were applied whereas after filtration process often an increasing number of bacteria could be observed in the effluent . Despite of the differing bacterial counts a reduction of the variety of species was found during all treatment process . Whereas the raw water contained a heterogeneous spectrum of copiotrophic and oligotrophic bacteria the treated water contained mainly slow growing oligotrophic bacteria which didn't express any physiological activities.

Clin Sci (Lond), 1985 May, 68(5), 489 - 93
Impaired baroreflex sensitivity in the aetiology of salt hypertension in the rabbit; Weinstock M et al.; This study was designed to see whether normotensive rabbits with an impairment in baroreflex control of heart rate due to genetic factors are more susceptible to high salt or deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt hypertension . The baroreflex sensitivity of 27 conscious rabbits was assessed by both the 'steady-state' and 'ramp' methods in response to injections of phenylephrine (2.5-30 micrograms/kg) . Animals with differing baroreflex sensitivities were then given 4 weeks treatment with 8% NaCl and 1.3% KCl in food (treatment A), or DOCA (25 mg pellet, subcutaneously) with 0.5% NaCl and 0.13% KCl in drinking water (treatment B) . A third group were maintained on a regular diet of food and water (controls) . A highly significant negative correlation (r = 0.91, P less than 0.01) was found between the increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) produced either by treatment A or treatment B and the baroreflex sensitivity before treatment . There was no significant correlation between the increase in MAP and initial MAP; increase in body weight; serum K+ after treatment; baroreflex sensitivity before treatment, when assessed by the 'ramp' method . It is concluded that animals with low baroreflex sensitivity due to a reduced ability to suppress cardiac sympathetic activity in response to a pressor stimulus, are more likely to develop hypertension as a result of salt loading . It remains to be determined whether the susceptibility to salt of rabbits with lower baroreflex sensitivity is also associated with a difference in the renal excretion of Na+ ions.

Rev Infect Dis, 1985 Mar-Apr, 7(2), 180 - 8
Transmission of viral infections by the water route: implications for developing countries; Ramia S; The "enteric" virus group comprises greater than 100 different viruses . These viruses typically infect the cell lining of the alimentary canal and are discharged in very large numbers in the feces of infected persons . Contamination of water supplies by enteric viruses represents an important source of viral infection . Many communities, particularly in developing countries, depend on sewage-polluted sources for their recreational and drinking water . Because conventional methods of sewage and water treatment have proved inefficient in the removal and inactivation of most enteric viruses, great concern has been raised over the impact of waterborne infection on the health of such communities . Current evidence implicating drinking and recreational water supplies in the transmission of nonbacterial gastroenteritis and hepatitis A virus and adenovirus infections is overwhelming . Water-borne transmission of other enteric viruses is also possible . Effective antiviral drugs are generally unavailable, and current vaccines can control only a limited number of viral infections; therefore, provision of uncontaminated water is a basic requirement in raising the standard of health in affected communities.

Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1985 Feb, 77(2), 303 - 14
Cardiovascular dysfunction and hypersensitivity to sodium pentobarbital induced by chronic barium chloride ingestion; Kopp SJ et al.; Barium-supplemented Long-Evans hooded rats were characterized by a persistent hypertension that was evident after 1 month of barium (100 micrograms/ml mineral fortified water) treatment . Analysis of in vivo myocardial excitability, contractility, and metabolic characteristics at 16 months revealed other significant barium-induced disturbances within the cardiovascular system . The most distinctive aspect of the barium effect was a demonstrated hypersensitivity of the cardiovascular system to sodium pentobarbital . Under barbiturate anesthesia, virtually all of the myocardial contractile indices were depressed significantly in barium-exposed rats relative to the corresponding control-fed rats . The lack of a similar response to ketamine and xylazine anesthesia revealed that the cardiovascular actions of sodium pentobarbital in barium-treated rats were linked specifically to this anesthetic, and were not representative of a generalized anesthetic response . Other myocardial pathophysiologic and metabolic changes induced by barium were manifest, irrespective of the anesthetic employed . The contractile element shortening velocity of the cardiac muscle fibers was significantly slower in both groups of barium-treated rats relative to the control groups, irrespective of the anesthetic regimen . Similarly, significant disturbances in myocardial energy metabolism were detected in the barium-exposed rats which were consistent with the reduced contractile element shortening velocity . In addition, the excitability of the cardiac conduction system was depressed preferentially in the atrioventricular nodal region of hearts from barium-exposed rats . Overall, the altered cardiac contractility and excitability characteristics, the myocardial metabolic disturbances, and the hypersensitivity of the cardiovascular system to sodium pentobarbital suggest the existence of a heretofore undescribed cardiomyopathic disorder induced by chronic barium exposure . These experimental findings represent the first indication that life-long barium ingestion may have significant adverse effects on the mammalian cardiovascular system.

Soc Sci Med, 1985, 21(1), 31 - 9
Studies of diarrhoea in Quindio (Colombia): problems related to water treatment; Bersh D et al.; This paper studies the association between fluctuations in rates of diarrhoea among children less than 5 years old in Armenia (Quindio) and variations in the application of chlorine in the aqueduct of the city . The study shows that to a great extent diarrhoea morbidity can be explained by the application of chlorine which does not reach useful levels of concentration during the required time . The article concluded by recommending the improvement of existing treatment plants and investing the necessary resources in new plants to insure the quality of water.

Soc Sci Med, 1985, 20(4), 393 - 8
Social and public health implication of water supply in arid zones in the Sudan; Awad el Karim MA et al.; The quantity and physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of water from wells, tap and zeers in Port Sudan and from wells, rectified and unrectified hafirs in South Kordofan Province were investigated . The relationship between water quantity and quality and prevalence of water-related diseases was also assessed . Both areas are semi-arid and tragically suffer from shortage of water . The average per capita consumption in Port Sudan was about 1001, and about 301, in South Kordofan . All water sources in both areas were invariably contaminated with coliforms . In South Kordofan the provision of water was primarily the responsibility of women and children . Depending on the crowds and the distance of the water source people spend between 3-5 hours per day carrying water . 50% of the families have to cover more than 2 km to reach the water source . It was evident that hafirs rectification increased the amount of water stored . Tap and zeer (home pots) water in Port Sudan was also contaminated with coliforms . The content of suspended and dissolved solids and turbidity of hafirs water was exceptionally high, which warrants proper protection and water treatment before distribution to the public . Scarcity of water rather than bacterial contamination was the cause of alarmingly high prevalence of diarrhoeal, skin and eye communicable diseases (water-washed diseases) among children and adults of Port Sudan and South Kordofan Province . However, it is plausible to suggest that even minor improvements on the provided quantity of water will reduce the prevalence of water-washed diseases.

Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc Eur Ren Assoc, 1985, 21, 321 - 5
Nitrate induced anaemia in home dialysis patients; Salvadori M et al.; Many home dialysis patients in Florence and the surrounding area suddenly showed an unusual anaemia . All used a softener for water treatment . They demonstrated methaemoglobinaemia, Heinz bodies and reduction in plasma haptoglobin indicating Hb oxidation . Tap water analysis showed excessive nitrates . The substitution of the softeners with deionisers solved this important and unusual clinical problem.

Trop Doct, 1985 Jan, 15(1), 45 - 7
Coagulant property of an indigenous seed: home water treatment in Tamil Nadu; Abel R et al.; Use of some vegetable substances as coagulant has been recorded in historical literature . A seed from the tree known as tettan cottai is used today in South Indian villages to purify water . The scrapings of the seed were shown in laboratory experiments to have coagulant properties . It would be extremely valuable to have additional measurements made in South India, where the practice is employed in removal of turbidity, and also to have evidence of the extent of removal microorganisms.

Environ Mutagen, 1985, 7(2), 201 - 11
Evaluation of chemicals used for drinking water disinfection for production of chromosomal damage and sperm-head abnormalities in mice; Meier JR et al.; Chemical oxidants are commonly added during water treatment for disinfection purposes . These chemicals have not been tested previously for their ability to induce genetic damage in vivo . Chlorine (hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid), monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, sodium chlorite, and sodium chlorate were evaluated for induction of chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei in bone marrow of CD-1 mice, and for induction of sperm-head abnormalities in B6C3F1 mice . Oral administration of chlorine at pH 8.5 (where hypochlorite predominates) at dose levels equivalent to approximately 4 and 8 mg/kg/day induced significant increases in the level of sperm-head abnormalities . There was no evidence of other effects with any of the disinfectants . Halogenated acetonitriles, which have previously been shown to form in the stomach following oral dosing of sodium hypochlorite to rats, were also tested in the sperm-head abnormality assay but gave no indication of an effect.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1985 Jan, 49(1), 1 - 7
A new medium for the enumeration and subculture of bacteria from potable water; Reasoner DJ et al.; Plate count agar is presently the recommended medium for the standard bacterial plate count (35 degrees C, 48-h incubation) of water and wastewater . However, plate count agar does not permit the growth of many bacteria that may be present in treated potable water supplies . A new medium was developed for use in heterotrophic plate count analyses and for subculture of bacteria isolated from potable water samples . The new medium, designated R2A, contains 0.5 g of yeast extract, 0.5 g of Difco Proteose Peptone no . 3 (Difco Laboratories), 0.5 g of Casamino Acids (Difco), 0.5 g of glucose, 0.5 g of soluble starch, 0.3 g of K2HPO4, 0.05 g of MgSO4 X 7H2O, 0.3 g of sodium pyruvate, and 15 g of agar per liter of laboratory quality water . Adjust the pH to 7.2 with crystalline K2HPO4 or KH2PO4 and sterilize at 121 degrees C for 15 min . Results from parallel studies with spread, membrane filter, and pour plate procedures showed that R2A medium yielded significantly higher bacterial counts than did plate count agar . Studies of the effect of incubation temperature showed that the magnitude of the count was inversely proportional to the incubation temperature . Longer incubation time, up to 14 days, yielded higher counts and increased detection of pigmented bacteria . Maximal bacterial counts were obtained after incubation at 20 degrees C for 14 days . As a tool to monitor heterotrophic bacterial populations in water treatment processes and in treated distribution water, R2A spread or membrane filter plates incubated at 28 degrees C for 5 to 7 days is recommended.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Folia Haematol Int Mag Klin Morphol Blutforsch, 1985, 112(5), 683 - 8
Influence of hypoosmotic and ammonium chloride-mediated haemolysis on the integrity of human mononuclear blood cells; Claus R et al.; Side effects of both hypoosmotic and ammonium chloride-mediated hemolysis were compared looking for cellular integrity of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells . Recovery and viability of mononuclear cells significantly declined only following water treatment . Cell loss by lysis of non-erythrocyte cells (monitored by 51Cr release) preferentially occurred in the lymphocyte population resulting in a relative enrichment of monocytes (identified by peroxidase and esterase staining as well as phagocytosis of fluorescent latex particles) . Consequences of this shifted monocyte/lymphocyte ratio for immunological tests are obvious . Necessity of red cell lysis and disadvantages referred especially to NH4Cl-induced white cell functional losses are outlined.

Z Urol Nephrol, 1984 Dec, 77(12), 711 - 20
{Correspondence of functional and structural findings in tubulo-interstitial disorders in chronic glomerulonephritis}; Ratner M et al.; In 237 patients with chronic glomerulonephritis and according to the serum creatinine level of functional compensation tubular and tubulointerstitial renal functions, respectively, were investigated and compared with the light-microscopic findings of the renal interstice . A distinct structural tubulointerstitial lesion (tiK) was found in 30% . The diagnostic predictivity for the recognition and the exclusion of the tiK was tested for single or paired data of the renal function . As a result it is possible with a suitable combination of parameters in on an average more than 80% of the cases to establish or to exclude function-diagnostically a tubulointerstitial structural lesion even in still inconspicuous creatinine values . From the clinical point of view thus the information value of functional diagnostic investigations of the renal water treatment is confirmed (concentration power, dilution ability, water diuresis), in which case the differentiated test of the renal acidification may supplement the informations about the tiK-situation.

Sci Total Environ, 1984 Dec, 40, 1 - 44
Significance and behaviour of heavy metals in wastewater treatment processes . IV . Water quality standards and criteria; Kirk PW et al.; Literature on the health aspects of the presence of heavy metals in water and wastewaters is reviewed and quality standards, criteria and legislation promulgated by the World Health Organisation, European Economic Community, U.S . Environmental Protection Agency and Government of the U.S.S.R . are assessed and compared . It is evident from the literature that standards applied differ according to the projected water use and that although standards for potable water are generally based on human health criteria, other factors including available technology and economics may be limiting . Emphasis has been placed on the protection of raw water quality as a result of the limited ability of potable water treatment processes to remove certain heavy metals . It is apparent that limitations on heavy metals in discharges from the chlor-alkali and cadmium salts and pigments industries are more stringent in the United States than in the European Economic Community . It is concluded that the finite availability of unpolluted freshwater will result in greater water re-use and that appropriate standards are required to protect potable supply, raw water and agricultural land from contamination by heavy metals.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1984 Dec, 180(1), 46 - 61
{Substrate property of organic substances in the treatment of drinking water}; Werner P; A method for the determination of the bacterial growth rate as parameter for the biodegradability of organics in water is described . The increase of the number of bacteria during incubation is measured by turbidity (12 degrees forward scattering) and total cell number counted in the microscope . The method allows to define the influence of water treatment steps (ozone, activated carbon filtration) on the growth rate being a decisive criterion on regrowth problems in distribution systems.

Int J Appl Radiat Isot, 1984 Nov, 35(11), 1029 - 33
Optimum geometry of a large Marinelli-type vessel and its application to environmental aqueous samples; Suzuki T et al.; In order to establish a system of monitoring radioactivity in waste water treatment plants, the optimum geometry of a large-volume Marinelli-type vessel with an 8% Ge(Li) detector was investigated, but optimum volume was not obtained . However, at a particular volume, the optimum geometry existed . The 30 L Marinelli-type vessel was applied to a system monitoring the influent and the return sludge at a waste water treatment plant in Tokyo.

Int J Appl Radiat Isot, 1984 Oct, 35(10), 957 - 60
On the determination of 99Tc in environmental waters; Garcia-Leon M et al.; In this paper we propose a search for 99Tc in flocs from water treatment plants . We show that preconcentration of 99Tc from environmental waters is a very advantageous method because of the high volumes involved . A radiochemical method is adapted in these kinds of samples, and 99Tc is identified in them by a previously published method . A typical value found is 0.56 +/- 0.26 mBq/g, where 1 g dry floc should be related to many liters of water.

Hum Toxicol, 1984 Oct, 3(5), 383 - 92
Reduction in exposure to lead from drinking water and its effect on blood lead concentrations; Sherlock JC et al.; The water supply in Ayr (Scotland, UK) was plumbosolvent and many dwellings in Ayr contained lead pipes . In 1981 treatment of the water supply to reduce its plumbosolvency was initiated . Measurements of water and blood lead concentrations were made before and subsequent to the treatment . Most of the measurements made before and after water treatment began were made on water samples from the same dwellings and blood samples from the same women . Water treatment produced a sharp fall in water lead concentrations and a decrease in the median blood lead concentration from 21 to 13 micrograms/100 ml . Two women had higher than expected blood lead concentrations, both these women had been removing old paint . Women who had lead pipes removed from their dwellings all showed substantial decreases in their blood lead concentrations . The curvilinearity of the relation between blood lead and water lead concentrations is confirmed . Even relatively low (less than 40 micrograms/l) water lead concentrations may make a substantial contribution to blood lead concentrations.

Sci Total Environ, 1984 Oct, 39(1-2), 27 - 47
Behaviour of persistent organochlorine micropollutants during primary sedimentation of waste water; Garcia Gutierrez A et al.; The removal of polychlorinated biphenyls and the organochlorine insecticides gamma-HCH, aldrin, dieldrin and endrin during primary sedimentation of raw sewage has been studied using a pilot plant facility . A matrix of sixteen experiments was performed, where the pilot plant was operated at four different hydraulic loadings with four different influent suspended solids loadings . Significant removals of micropollutants into the primary sludge were observed, although no particular relationship with the removal of suspended solids was evident . It is concluded that a proportion of the organic microcontaminants present in raw sewage were associated with non-settleable solids and were also in the dissolved form . The significance of the behaviour of organochlorine micropollutants in waste water treatment processes and the hydrological cycle are discussed in the context of water re-use operations.

Poult Sci, 1984 Aug, 63(8), 1671 - 3
Drinking water treatment with a commercial preparation of a concentrated Lactobacillus culture for broiler chickens; Watkins BA et al.; Three hundred male broiler chicks were used to determine the effects of supplying Lactobacillus in the drinking water . The product used, Biomax 40TM, was a fresh-frozen, pure culture of Lactobacillus containing 40 X 10(9) cfu/ml . Water treatments consisted of continuous lactobacilli dosing (CD) and skip-a-day lactobacilli dosing (SAD) . A control group (C) received no lactobacilli . Each treatment and control contained two pens of 50 chicks each and were fed for a duration of 7 weeks . At the termination of the experiment, weights of the wet viscera, and wet and dry small intestines of the broilers revealed no significant differences between treatments and control . Surface pH readings taken from crop and duodenum showed that there was no significant difference (P greater than .05) . Microbiology performed on duodenal contents revealed higher numbers of lactobacilli for CD and SAD broilers than for C broilers . The liver biotin contents of the lactobacilli-treated broilers were not significantly different from those of the controls . Body weights were not changed by either treatment, although they were greater for the CD broilers than for the SAD broilers . No difference was observed in feed conversion (feed/gain).

Am J Public Health, 1984 Jun, 74(6), 602 - 4
Waterborne giardiasis at a mountain resort: evidence for acquired immunity; Istre GR et al.; In November 1981, an outbreak of waterborne giardiasis occurred at a popular ski resort in Colorado . Stratification of illness by consumption of municipal tap water showed a striking dose-response, with an attack rate of 42 per cent among persons who drank six or more glasses of water per day . Filtered water samples revealed Giardia cysts in specimens both before and after treatment, and several deficiencies were found in the water treatment facility . Residents who had lived in the area greater than 2 years had a lower attack rate for illness than short-term residents.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1984 Jun, 179(3), 266 - 73
{Isolation and germ count of Listeria monocytogenes in raw and biologically treated waste water}; Geuenich HH et al.; The concentration of Listeria monocytogenes was determined in 66 samples of waste water and of the effluent after the biological step in the waste water pretreatment plant of Braunschweig . 697 strains of Listeria were isolated, 84 per cent of them were L . monocytogenes . The concentration of Listeria varied between 10(3)-2.4 X 10(5) cells/l . Neglecting some exceptions, there were about ten times more Listeria in the sludge than in the clearly filtered waste water . In general, Listeria seem to be not reduced by the biological oxidation during the waste water treatment . On the contrary, we observed a multiplication in 45 percent of all cases . The propagation of Listeria within amoebae or other protozoa is discussed . Finally, the hygienic role of sludge is discussed because Listeria are concentrated in it and they are able to survive many months up to some years.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Jun, 47(6), 1290 - 4
Detection of enteric viruses in treated drinking water; Keswick BH et al.; The occurrence of viruses in conventionally treated drinking water derived from a heavily polluted source was evaluated by collecting and analyzing 38 large-volume (65- to 756-liter) samples of water from a 9 m3/s (205 X 10(6) gallons {776 X 10(6) liters} per day) water treatment plant . Samples of raw, clarified, filtered, and chlorinated finished water were concentrated by using the filter adsorption-elution technique . Of 23 samples of finished water, 19 (83%) contained viruses . None of the nine finished water samples collected during the dry season contained detectable total coliform bacteria . Seven of nine finished water samples collected during the dry season met turbidity, total coliform bacteria, and total residual chlorine standards . Of these, four contained virus . During the dry season the percent removals were 25 to 93% for enteric viruses, 89 to 100% for bacteria, and 81% for turbidity . During the rainy season the percent removals were 0 to 43% for enteric viruses, 80 to 96% for bacteria, and 63% for turbidity . None of the 14 finished water samples collected during the rainy season met turbidity standards, and all contained rotaviruses or enteroviruses.

Am J Public Health, 1984 May, 74(5), 499 - 501
Fetal loss and work in a waste water treatment plant; Morgan RW et al.; We investigated pregnancy outcomes in 101 wives of workers employed in a waste water treatment plant (WWTP), and verified fetal losses by hospital records . Paternal work histories were compiled and each of the 210 pregnancies was assigned a paternal exposure category . The relative risk of fetal loss was increased when paternal exposure to the WWTP occurred around the time of conception.

Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 1984 Mar 31, 288(6422), 969 - 72
Water purification and the incidence of fractures in patients receiving home haemodialysis supervised by a single centre: evidence for "safe" upper limit of aluminium in water; Platts MM et al.; Between 1968 and 1980 fractures occurred in 56 of 284 patients treated by home haemodialysis in the Sheffield area for longer than one year . Patients sustained four times as many fractures while using dialysate prepared with water containing more than 1.0 mumol aluminium per 1 (2.7 micrograms/100 ml) than while using water containing a smaller concentration . When aluminium was removed from water by deionisation the incidence of fractures diminished during the next year and no patient developed dialysis encephalopathy . These findings show that 1.0 mumol/l is a safe maximum concentration of aluminium in water for use in home haemodialysis . It can be detected by the colorimetric aluminium analyses used by many water authorities . When financial resources are limited it is expedient to reserve aluminium analyses by electrothermal atomic absorption for plasma from patients receiving regular haemodialysis . Ingestion of aluminium hydroxide contributes significantly to the increased plasma aluminium concentration of these patients.

J Natl Cancer Inst, 1984 Mar, 72(3), 563 - 8
Trihalomethanes in drinking water and human colorectal cancer; Lawrence CE et al.; The relation of trihalomethanes (THM) to colorectal cancer was evaluated . A total of 395 colorectal cancer deaths among white women teachers in New York State was compared to an equal number of deaths of teachers from noncancerous causes . Cumulative chloroform (CHCl3) exposure was estimated by the application of a statistical model to operational records from the individual water treatment facilities that served the home and work addresses of each study subject during the 20 years prior to death . The odds of exposure to a surface source containing little or no THM was no greater for cases than for controls . The odds ratio = 1.07; the 90% confidence interval = 0.79-1.43; and the P = .68 . The distribution of CHCl3 exposure was not significantly different between cases and controls (rated by Wilcoxon signed rank statistic = -0.52; P = .60) . No effect of cumulative CHCl3 exposure on outcome was seen in a logistic analysis controlling for average source type, population density, marital status, age, and year of death (likelihood ratio test statistic = 0.047; P = .83).

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Feb, 47(2), 319 - 24
Enteric virus and indicator bacteria levels in a water treatment system modified to reduce trihalomethane production; Stetler RE et al.; A drinking-water treatment plant with high concentrations of trihalomethanes in its finished water and large numbers of viruses in its source water was located . This plant was used to study the effect of an alteration in the point of chlorination from the first to last step of water treatment on the biological and chemical qualities of its finished water . This alteration caused some reduction in trihalomethane production, but trihalomethane concentrations still exceeded the prescribed limit of 100 micrograms/liter . No viruses or bacterial indicators were ever isolated from the finished water of the modified plant . Total virus removal by the treatment steps before chlorination (coagulation, sedimentation, and sand filtration) averaged ca . 90%, whereas removal of bacterial indicators by these processes averaged between 88 and 98% . Recoveries of viruses and bacterial indicators in the source water were generally negatively correlated.

Nephron, 1984, 37(3), 200 - 2
Insufficient documentation of the hemodialysis prescription: delaying the definition of adequate dialysis; Lundin AP et al.; We analyzed 953 articles published in three established nephrology journals to select those pertaining to treatment with hemodialysis . A total of 152 papers were selected on the criteria that the reported results might have been affected by variation in the dialysis prescription . Only a small proportion of the papers studied (11.8%) detailed the complete dialysis prescription including type of dialyzer, blood flow rate, and duration and frequency of dialysis . A surprising 29% of papers provided no details of the dialyzer employed . Other potentially important variables such as the type of blood tubing or method of water treatment used were rarely mentioned . Comparative studies of the course and outcome of hemodialysis regimens require specification of exactly how dialysis was performed . It is suggested that manuscripts provide this information as a condition of suitability for publication.

Can J Microbiol, 1984 Jan, 30(1), 105 - 12
Virological examination of drinking water: a Canadian collaborative study; Payment P et al.; A collaborative virological survey of drinking water was initiated in three major Canadian urban areas, Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto . In each selected area, three water purification plants were sampled monthly for up to 18 months . The total population served by all nine plants was about 1 500 000 . Samples of raw (100 L) and treated (1000 L) water were examined by virus concentration procedures based on adsorption-elution . Sample concentrates were assayed for cytopathic viruses on BS-C-1 cells and the results were expressed as the most probable number of cytopathic units (MPNCU) . Viruses were detected in 57% (0-15.35 MPNCU/L) of the raw water samples from Montreal, 37% (0-46.0 MPNCU/L) in Ottawa, and 33% (0-4.91 MPNCU/L) in Toronto . The majority of isolates were reoviruses, but picornaviruses were also found . All finished waters (177 samples) met bacteriological, turbidity, and residual chlorine standards and were free of detectable viruses.

Arch Dermatol, 1984 Jan, 120(1), 102 - 3
Contact exposure to elemental iron causing chromonychia; Olsen TG et al.; An orange-brown chromonychia developed on the toenails of a woman after a geographic move resulted in exposure to rural well water . Samples of the water and qualitative and quantitative examination of nail clippings confirmed the fact that the source for the discoloration was contact exposure to elemental iron . Installation of water purification equipment resulted in resolution of the nail stain over a six-week period of time.

Miner Electrolyte Metab, 1984, 10(6), 345 - 50
Serum aluminium in haemodialysis patients: relation to osteodystrophy, encephalopathy and aluminium hydroxide consumption; Heaf JG et al.; The serum aluminium concentration of 82 patients undergoing regular dialysis treatment in a large dialysis department was measured . Duration of known uraemia, total cumulative aluminium hydroxide consumption, present level of aluminium hydroxide consumption and chronic interstitial nephropathy as primary kidney pathology were all positively correlated to serum aluminium concentration . Serum aluminium concentration was positively correlated to the incidence of clinical osteodystrophy and negatively correlated to bone mineral content . There was, however, no correlation to parathyroid hormone concentration or parathyroidectomy . The highest serum aluminium concentration was accompanied by clinical dialysis encephalopathy . The centre uses reverse osmosis for water purification, and there has never been measurable aluminium contamination . On the basis of these findings it is concluded that: the source of aluminium in our patients is aluminium hydroxide consumption and not the dialysis water; aluminium plays no role in the development of osteitis fibrosa; the findings are consistent with the theory that hyperaluminaemia plays a role in the development of osteomalacia, and serum aluminium measurement may be useful in the diagnosis of dialysis encephalopathy.

Uremia Invest, 1984, 8(1), 9 - 15
Bone disease in long-term hemodialysis patients with low dialysate aluminium; Grekas DM et al.; The dialysis unit in Sunderland uses softener water treatment with low Al concentration (dialysate mean Al 22 micrograms/L) but employs continuous oral Al (OH)3 to control serum phosphate . Thirty-one patients, 22 males and 9 females, with a mean age of 45 years, maintained on hemodialysis for a mean of 48 months were studied . Patients had higher Al concentrations than normal controls (p less than 0.001) and the postdialysis serum Al levels were also significantly higher than the predialysis levels . Twenty-four of 31 patients had evidence of hyperparathyroidism on radiology but only 4 of 31 had fractures . From a histopathological point of view, the patients were found to have no lesions (4 patients), osteitis fibrosa alone (17 patients), and osteitis fibrosa combined with osteomalacia (5 patients) . The effect of 1-alpha(OH)D3 treatment was checked by repeated bone biopsies . One case of the last group showed no improvement of osteitis fibrosa, while osteomalacia progressed to severe . We conclude that both antacids and dialysate contribute to the serum and tissue Al accumulation in Sunderland Renal Unit, where over a period of ten years only one patient developed Al-related osteomalacia.

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 1984, 50(5-6), 665 - 82
Studies on bacterial activities in aerobic and anaerobic waste water purification; Adamse AD et al.; Some aspects of the bacteriology of aerobic and anaerobic waste water purification are discussed in view of current opinions and recent developments in the technology of waste water treatment . Various contributions of scientific workers attached to the Department of Microbiology of the Agricultural University, Wageningen, during the past 65 years are summarized . Besides, present investigations are described and research activities in future indicated.

Can J Microbiol, 1983 Dec, 29(12), 1661 - 70
A multiple extraction--centrifugation method for the recovery of viruses from waste water treatment plant effluents and sludges; Lewis MA et al.; Absorption of 14C-labelled poliovirus-2 to sedimentable solids of primary sludge samples collected from a secondary treatment facility during a 6-month period averaged 94%; for anaerobically digested sludge, 99% . The extent of virus adsorption was influenced by the amount of solids . Maximal adsorption occurred at or above 0.5% solids with sludge diluted with deionized water and above 1.5% solids when diluted with the respective particle-free sludge supernatants . A Tris-HCl buffer containing NaCl, glycerol, and serum was found to efficiently elute poliovirus-2 from primary sludge solids . By means of re-extraction and concentration by centrifugation (the TEC procedure), the average recoveries of poliovirus-2 were 92-94% based upon either infectivity or radioactivity analyses . Similarly, recoveries were 90-92% for poliovirus-2 in digested sludge . Maximum elution was dependent upon all four TEC buffer components and the restriction of solids to less than or equal to 1.0% . The procedure was found to be more efficient than glycine-NaOH and Freon procedures or elution with beef embryo extract . As adapted for effluents the procedure increased the yield and improved the consistency of virus recovery . The arithmetic mean titers and obtained during a monitoring study for primary and digested sludge were 4.2 X 10(5) and 5.1 X 10(3) plaque-forming units (pfu)/L; for primary, secondary, and final effluents 2.3 X 10(5), 4.7 X 10(3), and 4.7 X 10(2) pfu/L, respectively.

Clin Nephrol, 1983 Nov, 20(5), 239 - 43
Assessment of hemolysis in regular hemodialysis patients by measuring carbon monoxide production rate; Lerner R et al.; In 17 patients requiring regular hemodialysis, inter- and intradialytic hemoglobin catabolism measured as endogenous carbon monoxide production (VCO) were studied before (9 patients) and after (8 patients) the introduction of water treatment . Before the water treatment, VCo increased significantly from inter- to intradialytic periods whereas insignificant changes were noted after the water treatment . Thus water treatment leads to less destruction of erythrocytes in connection with hemodialysis . However, hemolysis associated with hemodialysis does not play a major role as a cause of anemia in these patients.

JAMA, 1983 Oct 21, 250(15), 2020 - 4
Generation of dimethylnitrosamine in water purification systems . Detection in human blood samples during hemodialysis; Simenhoff ML et al.; Dimethylnitrosamine (DMNA), a carcinogen, was detected at levels up to 32 micrograms/L in dialysate from five of 16 dialysis units surveyed . Blood drawn from patients at one of these units in which DMNA was raised in the dialysate showed a significant increase in the amount of DMNA in the patient's blood when predialysis levels were compared with 15-minute intradialysis levels . The presence of a mixed-bed deionizer without an antecedent carbon filter appeared to be necessary for DMNA production . These data suggest that DMNA is generated in certain water purification systems and may then diffuse into the patient's blood . Guidelines for deionizer-treated water should be revised to include an activated carbon filter.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1983 Sep, 46(3), 683 - 8
Assessment of bacterial growth and total organic carbon removal on granular activated carbon contactors; Bancroft K et al.; The overall growth rate of bacteria on granular activated carbon (GAC) contactors at the Philadelphia Torresdale Water Treatment Pilot Plant facility was found to decrease until steady state was reached . The growth rate was found to fluctuate between 6.94 X 10(-3) and 8.68 X 10(-4) doublings per h . The microbiological removal of total organic carbon (TOC) was calculated by considering the GAC contactors as semiclosed continuous culture systems and using growth yield factors determined in laboratory experiments . After ozonation, the average TOC entering the contactors was 1,488 micrograms/liter, and the average effluent TOC was 497 micrograms/liter . Microbiological TOC removal was found to average 240 micrograms/liter on GAC contactors, which was not significantly different from microbiological TOC (220 micrograms/liter) removal across a parallel sand contactor where no adsorption took place . Thus, GAC did not appear to enhance biological TOC removal . Bacterial growth and maintenance was responsible for approximately 24% of the TOC removal on GAC under the conditions of this study.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1983 Aug, 46(2), 406 - 16
Microbial growth associated with granular activated carbon in a pilot water treatment facility; Wilcox DP et al.; The microbial dynamics associated with granular activated carbon (GAC) in a pilot water treatment plant were investigated over a period of 16 months . Microbial populations were monitored in the influent and effluent waters and on the GAC particles by means of total plate counts and ATP assays . Microbial populations between the influent and effluent waters of the GAC columns generally increased, indicating microbial growth . The dominant genera of microorganisms isolated from interstitial waters and GAC particles were Achromobacter, Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Chromobacterium, Corynebacterium, Micrococcus, Microcyclus, Paracoccus, and Pseudomonas . Coliform bacteria were found in small numbers in the effluents from some of the GAC columns in the later months of the study . Oxidation of influent waters with ozone and maintenance of aerobic conditions on the GAC columns failed to appreciably enhance the microbial growth on GAC.

Mutat Res, 1983 Jul, 118(1-2), 25 - 41
Formation of mutagens following chlorination of humic acid . A model for mutagen formation during drinking water treatment; Meier JR et al.; Aqueous chlorination of humic acids results in the formation of compounds with direct-acting mutagenic activity in the Ames/Salmonella plate assay for tester strains TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537 and TA1538 . The addition of a rat-liver microsomal fraction (S9) plus cofactors causes a substantial decrease of activity, the extent of which is tester strain dependent . The non-chlorinated humic acids are not mutagenic either in the presence or absence of S9 . Formation of mutagenic activity and of total organic halogen (TOX) is linearly related to humic concentration in the range of 0.2-1.6 mg/ml total organic carbon (TOC), and to chlorine concentration in the range of 0.1-1.0 chlorine equivalents per mole of carbon . The mutagenic activity is due predominantly to non-volatile compounds . Mutagenic activity is also detectable, after sample concentration by lyophilization, upon chlorination at a humic acid level of 0.02 mg/ml TOC . The specific mutagenic activities (per mg TOX), and also the degree of chlorine incorporation into humic acid, at 0.02 mg/ml TOC are similar to those present after chlorination at 1 mg/ml TOC . Production of mutagens is greatly dependent on the chlorination pH, with a pattern of decreasing mutagenic activity with increasing pH . This order of activity can be at least partially explained by the alkali liability of the compounds . Chlorination of commercial humic acids is proposed as a model for examination of mutagen formation during water chlorination.

Clin Chim Acta, 1983 Apr, 129(2), 141 - 9
Volatile halocarbons in tap water as a problem in haemodialysis therapy; Kroneld R et al.; The concentrations of volatile halocarbons in the tap water of Turku and of Turku University Central Hospital are quite high and are reduced but not eliminated during water treatment at the hospital . Before haemodialysis is started, only trichloromethane is found in the blood of the patients . Two hours later dichlorobromomethane and dibromochloromethane could also be found . These substances are absorbed, and possibly accumulate, in the body or are metabolised and excreted because all their concentrations are lower at the end of dialysis therapy . Therefore, maximum levels for volatile halocarbons in drinking water should be sufficiently low to prevent these substances being detected in body fluids and special care should be taken with hospital water.

J Occup Med, 1983 Mar, 25(3), 207 - 10
Measurement of IgG antibody and airborne antigen to control an industrial outbreak of hypersensitivity pneumonitis; Reed CE et al.; An outbreak of hypersensitivity pneumonitis in a textile plant was attributed on epidemiological grounds to a chilled water air-conditioning system where a slime was growing in the chilled water sump and on demister vanes . All of the patients and about 80% of their asymptomatic co-workers had strongly positive precipitin tests to extracts of the slime . An adaptation of a radioiodinated staphylococcal protein A solid-phase radioimmunoassay was applied to monitor antigen and specific antibody . To control the outbreak, a variety of cleaning and water treatment measures were taken between 1977 and 1979 to reduce the amount of antigen in the water and in the air . The amount of slime in the water was greatly reduced though the antigen content per gram of slime did not change . Airborne antigen in the affected work areas decreased progressively.

Health Phys, 1983, 44 Suppl 1, 485 - 92
Plutonium--its behavior in natural water systems and assimilation by man; Larsen RP et al.; There are a number of factors which must be considered in establishing whether or not the inadvertent intrusion of a sizable amount of plutonium-bearing material into a natural water system may have a significant impact on the health of those individuals who use that system as a drinking water resource . These factors include the chemical form(s) and solubility of plutonium in natural waters, its behavior in relation to natural processes (geochemical and biological), its fate in water treatment systems, and its uptake by man from drinking water . From the results obtained in our investigations of the behavior in natural water systems, it appears that (1) the chemical forms of plutonium dissolved in natural waters are Pu(IV) and Pu(V), (2) the soluble plutonium in many waters is bound to the organic constituents which probably enhances plutonium solubility, (3) the natural process responsible for the removal of plutonium from water is adsorption onto sediments, and (4) in water treatment systems, soluble plutonium is oxidized to the VI state and this form is not removed . From our investigations of gastrointestinal absorption, it appears that the value for f1, the fraction transferred from the gut to blood, is surely greater than 1 X 10(-3) and may be as high as 2 X 10(-1) . Consideration of these and other factors indicates that, in the event of an accident, the concentration of plutonium could, in certain small natural water systems, approach and perhaps even exceed, the MPC for plutonium . However, the impact on the health of the affected population would not be inordinately high.

Eur J Cell Biol, 1983 Jan, 29(2), 236 - 43
An approach to the assessment of membrane stability of cultured cells; Thaw HH et al.; A simple method for assessing the combined stability of the plasma and lysosomal membranes of cultured cells is described . Monolayers of normal, human glial cells were incubated in situ in an isotonic, buffered sucrose solution (pH 5.0) containing the acid phosphatase (AP) enzyme substrate p-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP) . The rate of appearance, in the solution, of the reaction product p-nitrophenol (PNP) was measured spectrophotometrically, curves then plotted, and fitted by computer . "Lag time" (LT) was calculated, and an index of membrane lability constructed, termed "fragility index" (FI) . Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), "vital" staining of the cells with fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and Evans Blue (EB), and use of a Gomori-type cytochemical technique, indicate that the data reflects the combined stability of lysosomal and plasma membranes . The latter playing the more critical role . Cell cultures pre-incubated with various membrane labilizing or stabilizing agents were compared . Control, 0.3 M sucrose, and normal saline treated cells demonstrated similar stability . Distilled water decreased AP latency (increased fragility), and the magnitude of this effect was time dependent . Cells fixed in glutaraldehyde (GA) retained much of their osmotic reactivity, as confirmed by distilled water treatment . Oxygen derived free radicals caused pronounced fragility, while dexamethasone, a membrane stabilizing agent, decreased membrane fragility . Triton X-100 abolished latency completely, and total AP activity was very rapidly recovered outside the cells in the surrounding incubation medium . These results suggest this technique yields a measure of membrane stability which is sensitive enough to differentiate between known stabilizers and labilizers of membranes . Hence, this may prove an easy and useful aid for the assessment of how various substances and environments modulate the lysosomal and plasma membrane stability of cultured cells.

Environ Health Perspect, 1982 Dec, 46, 73 - 86
Implications of treating water containing polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons with chlorine: a gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric study; Oyler AR et al.; The products of aqueous chlorination reactions of 1-methylnaphthalene, fluorene, dibenzofuran, anthracene, phenanthrene, 1-methylphenanthrene, fluoranthene, and pyrene have been determined . The conditions employed for these reactions approximated those that might be encountered in water treatment facilities . Reactions at pH greater than 6 tended to produce oxygenated products (epoxides, phenols, quinones, etc.), and reactions at pH less than 6 tended to produce both oxygenated (quinones) and chlorinated products.

Environ Health Perspect, 1982 Dec, 46, 47 - 55
Subchronic toxicity of chlorine dioxide and related compounds in drinking water in the nonhuman primate; Bercz JP et al.; Subchronic toxicities of ClO2, NaClO2, NaClO3 and NH2Cl were studied in the African Green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) . The chemicals were administered in drinking water during 30-60 days subchronic rising dose protocols . The only unexpected and significant toxic effect was elicited by ClO2; this chemical inhibited thyroid metabolism in the animals at a dose of ca . 9.0 mg/kg/day . A statistically significant decrease of serum thyroxine occurred after the fourth week of exposure to 100 mg/l.concentration . The extent of thyroid suppression was dose dependent in each individual monkey, and was reversible after cessation of exposure . NaClO2 and NaClO3 failed to elicit similar effects in doses up to ca . 60 mg/kg/day . Also, NaClO4 or NH2Cl did not cause T-4 suppression in doses of 10 mg/kg/day . The selective thyroid effect of ClO2 was unexplained and it appeared to be paradoxical since ClO2 was rapidly reduced by the oral and gastric secretions to nonoxidizing species (presumably Cl-) . No evidence of thyroid effects were detected in the serum of human volunteers who ingested approximately 1 mg/l . of ClO2 in drinking water as a result of routine use in the community water treatment process . Sodium chlorite induced dose-dependent oxidative stress on hematopoesis, causing decreased hemoglobin and red cell count and increased methemoglobin content . At the same time, serum transaminase (SGPT) levels showed significant subclinical elevation . The hematologic effects of NaClO2 rebounded during exposure indicating compensatory hemopoietic activity taking effect during oxidative stress . Sodium chlorate and chloramine did not induce detectable hematologic changes in the animals.

Environ Health Perspect, 1982 Dec, 46, 179 - 86
Drinking water treatment and risk of cancer death in Wisconsin; Kanarek MS et al.; A case control study of drinking water treatment practices and female cancer mortality was conducted in Wisconsin . Cancer deaths for 1972-1977 from 28 Wisconsin counties and noncancer deaths matched to cancer deaths on age, year of death and county of residence, were compared for characteristics of drinking water supplied to their places of residence . Using logistic regression, estimates of relative risk associated with chlorinated water were examined allowing for the influence of indicators of water organics and the potential confounders of occupation, marital status and urbanicity . Only colon cancer appeared to be related significantly to chlorination in all models explored . A dose-response relationship was found between crude indicators of trihalomethane level (chlorination X organic contamination) and colon cancer death . The odds ratio for chlorinated surface water for colon cancer was 2.81 (p less than 0.01); approximately half this risk was found for chlorinated ground water . Consequently, a case control study of colon cancer and drinking water quality utilizing newly diagnosed patients is being conducted in Wisconsin.

Am J Epidemiol, 1982 Dec, 116(6), 924 - 32
Drinking water and cancer incidence in Iowa . II . Radioactivity in drinking water; Bean JA et al.; Iowa towns of 1000-10,000 population, whose water came solely from wells of over 500 feet (152 meters) in depth and was not treated by a process that would remove radioactivity, were identified . Age-adjusted, sex-specific, cancer incidence rates were determined for these towns for the years 1969-1978 (excluding 1972) and related to the mean level of radium-226 in the municipal water supply . Incidence rates of cancers of the lung and bladder among males and of cancers of the breast and lung among females were higher in towns with a radium-226 level in the water supply exceeding 5.0 pCi/l . A gradient of increasing cancer incidence associated with rising radioactivity level for three time periods was also seen for lung cancer among males . The associations between cancer incidence and radioactivity of water supply could not be explained by smoking patterns, water treatment factors, other water quality measurements, or known socio-demographic features.

Lancet, 1982 Oct 9, 2(8302), 785 - 7
Water supply aluminium concentration, dialysis dementia, and effect of reverse-osmosis water treatment; Davison AM et al.; Dialysis dementia appeared in 18 of 258 patients treated by haemodialysis . All Cases developed in patients treated by home dialysis (150) and none in patients treated exclusively by hospital dialysis (108) . Analyses of the domestic water supply for each month on dialysis showed that dementia occurred only in those whose water supply had a high aluminium concentration (greater than 80 micrograms/l) . The significant exponential relation (p less than 0.01) between the mean aluminium concentration in the water used to prepare the dialysate and the time taken to death from dementia indicates that there is probably no safe aluminium concentration and that removal of aluminium from water is essential before haemodialysis, particularly in areas where alum is used in water treatment as a clarifying agent . Reverse osmosis treatment satisfactorily removes aluminium and many other substances from water . Its application had a beneficial effect on 7 of 9 patients previously exposed to dialysate prepared from water with a high aluminium content and prevented the appearance of dementia in 24 patients whose water was so treated from the start of haemodialysis.

Can J Microbiol, 1982 Sep, 28(9), 1002 - 13
Characterization of indicator bacteria in municipal raw water, drinking water, and new main water samples; Clark JA et al.; Municipal water samples were analyzed by membrane filter (MF) and presence-absence (P-A) tests for pollution indicator bacteria . In four years, 11 514 bacterial cultures were isolated from either raw water, drinking water, or new main water samples submitted to three environmental laboratories . The bacterial species occurring most often in all types of water samples were Escherichia coli (11.6-39.7%), Enterobacter aerogenes (18.1-26.3%), Aeromonas hydrophila (8.8-17.0%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (7.7-10.3%), and Citrobacter freundii (5.9-22.7%) . A lactose - lauryl tryptose - tryptone broth was examined as an alternative medium to modified MacConkey broth in the presumptive portion of the P-A test . The intensity of acid and gas production in presumptive positive P-A bottles was compared with the types and frequencies of indicator bacteria shown by confirmatory tests . The results of detecting indicator bacteria following the analysis of 53 130 samples over a 2-year period were arranged by water source (well, lake, river, mixed) and water type (raw or drinking) to determine the influence of these parameters on the recovery of indicator bacteria . A further subdivision of the sample types into raw surface, raw ground, in-plant, plant discharge, reservoir, and distribution samples demonstrated the effect of water treatment practices.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Aug, 44(2), 308 - 16
Selection of antibiotic-resistant standard plate count bacteria during water treatment; Armstrong JL et al.; Standard plate count (SPC) bacteria were isolated from a drinking-water treatment facility and from the river supplying the facility . All isolates were identified and tested for their resistance to six antibiotics to determine if drug-resistant bacteria were selected for as a consequence of water treatment . Among the isolates surviving our test procedures, there was a significant selection (P less than 0.05) of gram-negative SPC organisms resistant to two or more of the test antibiotics . These bacteria were isolated from the flash mix tank, where chlorine, alum, and lime are added to the water . Streptomycin resistance in particular was more frequent in this population as compared with bacteria in the untreated river water (P less than 0.01) . SPC bacteria from the clear well, which is a tank holding the finished drinking water at the treatment facility, were also more frequently antibiotic resistant than were the respective river water populations . When 15.8 and 18.2% of the river water bacteria were multiply antibiotic resistant, 57.1 and 43.5%, respectively, of the SPC bacteria in the clear well were multiply antibiotic resistant . Selection for bacteria exhibiting resistance to streptomycin was achieved by chlorinating river water in the laboratory . We concluded that the selective factors operating in the aquatic environment of a water treatment facility can act to increase the proportion of antibiotic-resistant members of the SPC bacterial population in treated drinking water.

G Batteriol Virol Immunol, 1982 Jul-Dec, 75(7-12), 322 - 36
{Findings on the spread of anthrax spores in the provincial territory of Milan with tanneries}; Perone A et al.; This paper presents the results of a research, started since 1976, on the environmental spreading of the Anthrax spores in the county of Milan, where there is an high concentration of leather manufactures preparing and tanning skins mostly imported from Africa . B . anthracis spores were found in the raw skins, in the sewage water from the tanning units and in the fresh and dry sludges from the tannery water treatment plants . We propose hereby few operational procedures for the sanitizing of the imported skins and for the treatment of the tannery sludges in order to avoid the spreading of the Anthrax spores on the territory and the consequent threat to the health of the population and of the live-stock.

Life Sci, 1982 Jan 11, 30(2), 117 - 29
Minireview: the health implications of water treatment with ozone; Carmichael NG et al.; Ozone is a highly efficient disinfectant which may have significant advantages in water treatment compared to chlorine . It has, however, been shown that mutagenic and possibly carcinogenic byproducts may be produced under certain conditions of ozonation . Light chlorination following ozonization may meet the highest standards of disinfection . In addition the destruction of much of the organic matter by prior ozone treatment may well result in less harmful chlorinated and brominated products in the finished water . In many cases ozone treatment alone may suffice . It would be desirable to test with long term in vivo experiments which of the alternatives produces the best combination of microbiologically clean and pleasant water with minimum mutagenic and carcinogenic effect.

Environ Mutagen, 1982, 4(4), 469 - 76
Effect of ozonation on the mutagenicity of carcinogens in aqueous solution; Burleson GR et al.; Ozone is a very strong oxidizing agent that may be used in water purification . The effect of ozonation on the mutagenicity of mutagens and/or carcinogens of diverse chemical structures was evaluated as measured by the Salmonella/microsome assay . The effect of ozonation of 36 mutagens and/or carcinogens has been evaluated and the results of 15 reported here . The mutagenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic amines was inactivated by ozone treatment, while alkylating agents, nitro aromatics, and nitroso compounds were not affected . Ozonation of hydrazines produced mutagenic intermediates that may be susceptible to base-catalyzed hydrolysis . Therefore, depending on the chemical present, ozonation may be useful in the treatment of waters containing organic carcinogens, including drinking water, waste-water effluents, and other aqueous waste materials containing carcinogens.

J Anim Sci, 1982 Jan, 54(1), 179 - 82
Effect of water temperature on rumen temperature, digestion and rumen fermentation in sheep; Brod DL et al.; Three studies were conducted to examine effect of water temperature on rumen temperature, digestion and fermentation in sheep . Four, 2-yr-old wethers were used in a Latin square design among four water temperature treatments: 0, 10, 20 and 30 C . Rumen temperature was depressed most by 0 C water followed by 10 C, 20 C and 30 C water . For 0, 10, 20 and 30 C water, respectively, 108, 96, 96 and 72 min were needed to reach initial rumen temperature . Water temperature had no significant effect on N balance or percentage dry matter digestibility, crude protein digestibility and crude fiber digestibility although lowest digestion coefficients were observed for the 0 C treatment . Numerical differences were observed in rumen pH or volatile fatty acid (VFA) and ammonia-N concentrations at the various water temperatures; however, the effects were not significant . Rumen pH was maximally depressed at 2 h postfeeding for 0 C water, 3 h for 10 C water, 4 h for 20 C water, and 3 and 4 h for 30 C water . By 4 h postfeeding, the 0 C water treatment produced the highest concentration of all VFA and ammonia-N; however, by 4 h not all of the VFA or ammonia-N concentrations had reached maxima for 10, 20 or 30 C water treatments . The 0 C water treatment produced the lowest concentrations of ammonia-N and VFA (except acetate) by 5 h postfeeding.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1982, 176(5-6), 562 - 70
{Evidence of Salmonellae in the Mur river; comparison 1969-1981}; Mose JR et al.; In summary, we would like to emphasize that the significance of modern waste water purification plants is generally recognized today . However, salmonella concentration in the water of the Mur river has not decreased, in spite of increased numbers of waste water purification plants and related measures taken in the past decade . This statement is not a criticism, but a deplorable fact which must be acknowledged by all who are involved in the combat against salmonellas.

J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1981 Dec 1, 179(11), 1198 - 202
Cyclic dermatitis associated with Fusarium sp infection in pinnipeds; Montali RJ et al.; Dermatitis associated with Fusarium sp infection developed in 3 California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and 3 gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) at the National Zoological Park in Washington DC . The lesions were papular or nodular and were distributed mainly on the face, trunk, and flippers . One sea lion died 6 weeks after extensive cutaneous involvement . The lesions regressed after 1 mild exacerabtion in the other 2 sea lions . In the gray seals, the skin condition appeared to worsen during the summer and to regress during the winter, despite oral and topical treatment with miconazole and thiabendazole . Fusarium sp was repeatedly isolated from biopsy specimens of lesions . Hyperplasia of epidermal and follicular epithelium was associated with acute and chronic inflammation and fungal hyphae . The species of the fungus in 1 of the gray seals was determined to be F solani, a type occasionally associated with keratitis and opportunistic infections in human beings . Initial excessive chlorination and high fluctuating pool temperatures attributed to a faulty water treatment system were considered as factors in promoting fungal growth.

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 1981 Dec, 27(6), 765 - 72
Effect of water treatment on mutagenic potential; Flanagan EP et al.; Enzymatic activation did not convert the compounds in the sample concentrates into mutagens . These results are in agreement with those of CHEH et al . (1979) that the mutagenic activity was two to three times greater without the activating system than with it . The dose response relationships demonstrated a low level of mutagenic activity for the concentrates of the Lake Michigan samples . The MAR increases for the completely treated potable water . The concentrates of the Calumet River water to which chlorine had been added produced more revertants per volume of concentrate than did the concentrates of water which had not been chlorinated . Chlorination of the water with no additional treatment produced the highest degree of activity . For the Calumet River samples, treatment with coagulants reduced the net number of revertants to one-third the value for the raw water . When chlorine was added as the final treatment step, the net number of revertants increased by a factor of ten.

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 1981 Oct, 27(4), 442 - 9
Comparison of liquid-liquid extraction and resin adsorption for concentrating mutagens in Ames Salmonella/microsome assays on water; Grabow WO et al.; The Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay (AMES et al . 1975) is a relatively simple, cheap and rapid test for mutagenic activity (GREIM et al . 1980, SOBELS 1980) . Although there are uncertainties about the health implications of mutagens, the Ames test detects 85 to 93% of known chemical carcinogens and is considered an essential part of the minimal battery of bioassays required in studies on environmental compounds which may damage chromosomal material (GREIM et al . 1980, SOBELS 1980) . Since water may play an important role in the transmission of environmental carcinogens, which are responsible for an estimated 50 to 90% of human cancer cases, the Ames test is being used to determine the incidence of potential carcinogens in water supplies and their removal or formation by water treatment processes (HOOPER et al . 1978, NESTMANN et al . 1979, RAPPAPORT et al . 1979, SAXENA & SCHWARTZ 1979, SCHWARTZ et al . 1979, DENKHAUS et al . 1980, GRABOW et al . 1980, LOPER 1980) . In many waters, particularly drinking-water supplies, the concentration of mutagens is generally too low for direct detection by the Ames test, and a wide variety of methods are being used to concentrate mutagens from large volumes of water (HOOPER et al . 1978, NESTMANN et al . 1979, RAPPAPORT et al . 1979, SCHWARTZ et al . 1979, GRABOW et al . 1980, LOPER 1980, GRIMM-KIBALO et al . 1981).

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1981 Sep, 173(6), 501 - 8
The incidence of water-related diseases in the Brak area, Libya from 1977 to 1979, before and after the installation of water treatment plants; Ghannoum MA et al.; The incidence of nine water-related diseases in the Brak oases of the Sahara desert, before and after the installation of water treatment plants, are reported . Immediately following installation of the plants there was a drop in the incidence of most of the water related diseases . There then followed a gradual deterioration in the treatment plants and within a year the incidence of four of the diseases was again rising . Furthermore neither malaria or giardiases showed any drop in incidence over the study period . Bacillary dysentary, infectious hepatitis and bilharzia did however drop significantly over the three years . A correlation between bacillary dysentary and the mean noon-time temperature for two of the three years was noted.

Ann Clin Lab Sci, 1981 Jul-Aug, 11(4), 337 - 42
Aluminum toxicity in relation to kidney disorders; King SW et al.; Aluminum toxicity in patients with chronic renal failure has been related to renal osteodystrophy and dialysis encephalopathy (DES) . The toxicity is associated with renal osteodystrophy in two ways . One association is the iatrogenic effect of excessive use of aluminum hydroxide gels resulting in hypophosphatemia which interferes with bone mineralization . The second association may involve deposition of aluminum in bone owing to aluminum being absorbed during hemodialysis . Evidence for this second association has been gathered from epidemiological studies of hemodialysis centers and their practices of using either tap water high in aluminum in the dialysate, or aluminum-free deionized water . In patients with DES, aluminum accumulation in the brain has been clearly shown to come from either the ingestion of aluminum containing phosphate-binding gels, aluminum in the dialysate, or a combination of the two . The outbreak of the DES also has been well-correlated with the sudden elevation of aluminum in tap water owing to the use of large amounts of aluminum in water treatment plants . Whether aluminum itself or a combination of aluminum and other factors causes DES is not understood at this time.

N Z Med J, 1981 May 27, 93(684), 335 - 7
Correction of high serum aluminium in a patient on maintenance haemodialysis; Wallace MR; Withdrawal of oral aluminium hydroxide resulted in a sustained fall of serum aluminium from potentially toxic levels in a patient on maintenance haemodialysis . This result confirms the experience of others, and suggests that this manoeuvre is more appropriate than expensive water treatment in the prevention of aluminium toxicity in patients at risk.

J Trauma, 1981 May, 21(5), 394 - 7
Cooling the burn wound to maintain microcirculation; Raine TJ et al.; To evaluate the effect which cooling of burn wounds has upon dermal microvascular circulation, standard 10% BSA dorsal guinea-pig scald burns were created . In treated animals, the dorsal burned region was immersed in a circulating ice-water bath (0-3 degrees C) for 30 minutes at various time intervals postburn (10,20,30, and 60 minutes after scald) . India-ink perfusion was used to determine the level of dermal vessel patency at 2, 4, 8, 24, 72, and 96 hours after burning . By 96 hours, significant differences could be seen in animals cooled 10, 20, or 30 minutes after burning . Those not treated until 60 minutes after burning had dermal perfusion essentially the same as control animals . 133Xe dermal washout studies were performed at 8 and 24 hours and corroborated these findings . Grossly, burn wounds cooled by 30 minutes after burn had markedly better healing than control animals and animals cooled 60 minutes after burning . We believe these data support the early use of cold water treatment of partial-thickness burn wounds, as demonstrated in this experimental study.

Sci Total Environ, 1981 Apr, 18, 345 - 56
EPA policies to protect the health of consumers of drinking water in the United States; Cotruvo JA; In the United States our objective is to protect drinking water at the source, during treatment and during distribution . In 1975 interim regulations for bacteria and turbidity, 10 inorganic chemicals, 6 organic chemicals and radionuclides were promulgated . In 1979 National Secondary Regulations for substances affecting the aesthetic quality of water were promulgated . In 1979 trihalomethanes were added . The United States is engaged in comprehensive revisions of the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations . The areas of our most significant concern include detection and control of contamination of ground waters by organic chemicals resulting from improper waste disposal practices, a reassessment of microbiological regulations and toxicity of disinfectant by-products and a major effort to deal with corrosion-related contamination of drinking water during distribution . We are evaluating the issue of a granular activated carbon requirement for contaminated surface waters . A program to assure the quality of direct and indirect additives to drinking water has also been initiated . Part of this activity will include determination of the contaminants and by-products associated with the use of various water treatment chemicals and pipe materials.

Sci Total Environ, 1981 Apr, 18, 235 - 43
Chlorine, is there a better alternative?
Robeck GG.
In brief, the current status of our present knowledge regarding alternatives to free chlorine is as follows: 1 . Biocidal Capabilities - Ozone is the most potent biocide of those under consideration . Chlorine dioxide is about on a par with hypochlorous acid, the most efficient form of free residual chlorine . Chlorine dioxide, in contrast to free residual chlorine, increases in efficiency as pH increases above 6 . Chloramine is a much weaker biocide than hypochlorite ion, the least inefficient form of free residual chlorine . 2 . Health effects - All of the potential alternatives may cause some adverse health effects . Chlorite and chlorate, two of the reaction products of chlorine dioxide, have been shown to cause a subclinical apparently compensated hemolytic anemia in rats . On the other hand, according to very preliminary studies, chlorine and all of the alternatives except chlorine dioxide have been shown to produce reaction products from substances in water that can initiate tumors in mice . Actually, all disinfectants are reactive molecules capable of altering the chemical nature of organic substances present in the water . Thus, the alternative disinfectants question relates to other aspects of water treatment particularly the use of processes for organic precursor removal prior to disinfection . 3 . Technology and Economics - The simplest and most economical conversion for many utilities, would be to the use of chloramines and the most difficult and expensive would be to the use of ozone . Conversion to chlorine dioxide would be intermediate in cost.

Sci Total Environ, 1981 Apr, 18, 219 - 33
Treatment: improvement or deterioration of water quality?
Kuhn W, Sontheimer H.
The formation of trihalomethanes through chlorination has shown very clearly that water treatment processes may adversely affect water quality . There are many more examples of such effects, including the following which are discussed in detail: 1 . Formation of organohalogen compounds in addition to trihalomethanes by chlorination and other oxidation processes . 2 . Formation of more polar, more biodegradable organics by ozonation for example, and the consequent increase in bacterial growth in the distribution system . 3 . Formation and removal of organic and inorganic corrosion inhibitors by treatment, and the consequent higher heavy metal concentrations in tap water.

Sci Total Environ, 1981 Apr, 18, 155 - 66
Sensory evaluation of drinking water by consumer panels; Koster EP et al.; The human senses play an important role in assessing the quality of food and of the environment . Particularly the chemical senses of taste and smell determine the pleasantness of foods and drinks and may provide a warning mechanism for the presence of more or less toxic contaminants . Even after the recent rapid development of powerful analytical techniques the human nose can easily detect trace amounts of chemicals at levels many times lower than the analytical detection limits . Although taste and odour assessment of drinking water has been practiced in many waterworks laboratories by small panels, relatively unreliable results were obtained and such sensory data played up till now only a minor role in the management of the water treatment plant . More sophisticated and reliable methods for sensory water quality evaluation are discussed . Special attention is given to the characteristics of the human senses of taste and smell, to which the methodology of sensory assessment should be better adapted . High numbers of observations on a sample are generally needed, for which purpose the use of large panels has to be realized . In this respect the help of large consumer panels is an alternative for the presently often used small laboratory groups . As an example the preliminary results of a large ongoing experiment of sensory water quality assessment by 2 consumer panels of 100 persons each in the Rotterdam area are discussed . Drinking water quality is judged at the consumer homes every week . The experiment started September 1979 and will be continued for one year.

Sci Total Environ, 1981 Apr, 18, 1 - 11
Salmonella and other pathogenic bacteria; Bonde GJ; The bacterial origin of waterborne diseases was discovered at the turn of this century . Introduction of slow sandfiltration, chlorination, and bacteriological control dates back to the same period . Although greater concern is given to-day to chemical pollutants or to viruses, bacteria are still a menace to countries with advanced water treatment . Within the last decade outbreaks were reported in Europe and the US due to Salmonella types, Shigella, E . coli, and to Vibrio cholerae, generally due to deficiencies in treatment, and often caused by smaller private works . A wider spectrum of bacteria must be taken into consideration to-day, Enterobacteriaceae are still the most important including Yersinia, E . coli, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter . The opportunistic microorganisms (pseudomonads, Acinetobacter, Campylobacter, Aeromonas, Flavobacterium) can also be a danger.

Can J Microbiol, 1981 Apr, 27(4), 417 - 20
Isolation of viruses from drinking water at the Point-Viau water treatment plant; Payment P; Viruses were isolated from every sample of raw (100 L) and treated (1000 L) water collected at a water treatment plant drawing sewage-contaminated river water . Few plaque-forming isolates were formed but cytopathogenic viruses were isolated as frequently in drinking water as in raw water . In drinking water some samples contained more than 1 cytopathogenic unit per litre, but most contained 1-10/100 L . These viruses had not been inactivated or removed by prechlorination, flocculation, filtration, ozonation, and postchlorination . There were no coliforms present and a residual chlorine level had been maintained . Poliovirus type 1 was a frequent isolate but many isolates were nonpoliovirus . The presence of these viruses in drinking water raises questions about the efficacy of some water treatment processes to remove viruses from polluted water.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Mar, 41(3), 646 - 51
Effects of activated carbon and bacteriostatic filters on microbiological quality of drinking water; Tobin RS et al.; Three activated carbon filters for point-of-use water treatment were tested in laboratory and field studies for chemical removal and microbiological effects on water . All removed free available chlorine in municipally treated water to below the limit of detection, but removed only about 50 to 70% of the total available chlorine and 4 to 33% of the total organic carbon . Standard plate count bacteria in the effluent increased steadily with time for 3 weeks and remained elevated over the 8-week period of the study . Total coliform bacteria were found to persist and proliferate on the filters for several days after transient contamination of the influent water . Silver-containing activated carbon filters suppressed total coliform but not total bacterial growth . Pseudomonas aeruginosa was recovered from the effluents of all filters at some time during the tests.

J Clin Microbiol, 1981 Feb, 13(2), 266 - 8
Campylobacter fetus subsp . jejuni in a turkey processing plant; Luechtefeld NW et al.; Cecal cultures taken over a 1-year period from 600 turkeys at a poultry processing plant were all positive for Campylobacter fetus subsp . jejuni . Swabs of the cloaca and fresh feces were likewise all positive . Of 33 freshly dressed turkey carcases, 94% were positive before chilling in tanks of chlorinated ice and water; 34% of 83 carcasses were still positive after overnight soaking in the tanks . Increasing the chlorine content from 50 to 340 ppm (50 to 340 micrograms/ml) did not cause a decrease in the number of positive carcasses . C . fetus subsp . jejuni was isolated from wastewater gutters as well as from chutes and conveyor belts in the packaging room . Water samples from the five water treatment lagoons for the plant were all positive for C . fetus subsp . jejuni while the plant was in operation, but 4 days after the plant closed for the winter, all water samples were negative.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1981, 173(3-4), 217 - 32
{Occurrence and significance of Actinomycetes in drinking water (author's transl)}; Dott W et al.; Different species of Actinomycetes could be found in the raw-water depending on the origin of the water . The process of water-treatment influenced the total count and the various species in a different mode . Actinomycetes were also isolated from slime which has been formed by microbial growth on PVC coated walls in reservoirs . The typical earthy-musty odour was only found in the genera Streptomyces, were as some species of Nocardia are able to produce a phenolic odour.

J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol, 1981, 25(1), 24 - 30
Endemic occurrence of Mycobacterium kansasii in water-supply systems; Kaustova J et al.; Of a total number of 1079 drinking water and colliery service water samples examined in an area of the North-Moravian Region Czechoslovakia, characterized by endemic occurrence of M . kansasii infections, 233 {21.6%} samples were found to be contaminated by mycobacteria, of these 20 {1.9%} by M . kansasii . Of additionally examined 510 water samples from the municipal water-supply network, which were collected in hospital laboratories and clinical departments as well as in the households of patients with M . kansasii infection and their possible contacts, 171 {33.5%} samples showed presence of mycobacteria, of these 18 {3.5%} were M . kansasii-positive . This mycobacterial species was isolated from the drinking water samples collected in two hospitals in the core of the endemic area, e.i . in the district of Karvina . In the district of Ostrava, where the drinking water supply, bot for colliery and households facilities, is provided from the same water-supply system, the presence of M . kansasii in the municipal water-supply network was not proved, but it was isolated from 5 samples of colliery drinking water . Further 114 samples taken from the local water treatment plant supplying the endemic area with drinking water were found to be free of M . kansasii species.

J Clin Pharmacol, 1981 Jan, 21(1), 26 - 30
Effect of magnesium--aluminum hydroxide and kaolin--pectin on absorption of digoxin from tablets and capsules; Allen MD et al.; Twelve healthy fasting volunteers received two 0.2-mg digoxin capsules or tablets with 60 ml water, 60 ml Maalox, or 60 ml Kaopectate in a randomized, single-dose, six-way crossover study . Concentrations of digoxin in multiple plasma samples and in all urine collected during the 24 hours after each dose were determined by radioimmunoassay . Compared to the water treatment, administration of both tablets and capsules with Maalox or Kaopectate reduced the peak digoxin plasma concentrations but did not significantly influence the time of peak concentration . Neither Maalox nor Kaopectate influenced the area under the 24-hour plasma concentration--time curve for either tablets or capsules . However, 24-hour urinary recovery of digoxin from tablets tended to be reduced by Maalox and Kaopectate; this was not the case with capsules . Digoxin capsules may have an advantage over currently available tablets in clinical situations requiring digoxin coadministration with nonabsorbable gastrointestinal preparations.

Acta Histochem, 1981, 68(2), 147 - 59
Effect of osmotic stress on the chloride and mucous cells in the gill epithelium of the fresh-water teleost Barbus filamentosus (Cypriniformes, Pisces) . A structural and histochemical study; Zaccone G; A histochemical analysis of mucous and chloride cells has been made in the gills of the fresh-water Teleost Barbus filamentosus after the acclimation to 8 0/00 sea-water . The number of the chloride cells at the basis of the respiratory leaflets in control fish is very few and increases markedly during the various times of adaptation . These cells along with a limited number of goblet cells located in the gill interfilamentar membrane which show properties of typically salt excretory glands after the same salt water treatment, are good visualized in the succinate dehydrogenase enzyme and Mg++-dependent ATPase enzyme preparations in addition to the reactivity found with the chloride test thus suggesting their role in the secretory transepithelial NaCl transport across the gill surface.

Neurol Res, 1981, 3(4), 345 - 61
Factors in the reproducibility of the gravimetric method for evaluation of edematous changes in the brain; Fujiwara K et al.; In the gravimetric method for estimation of water content in brain tissue, four factors that may affect specific gravity (SG) measurements are described and evaluated . These factors are: (1) the purity of kerosene (K) and monobromobenzene (MBB), (2) duration of interaction of MBB with tissue and/or standard solutions, (3) the size of tissue samples, and (4) the temperature . A water-soluble contaminant in K, which can be effectively extracted by water treatment, may significantly decrease SG values . Conversely, in MBB, the SG of tissue samples tends to increase in proportion with time . The SG of the tissue samples appears to be influenced by their size, the smaller pieces registering higher SG values . Also, the temperature of the column affects the SG, with higher temperatures resulting in higher SG values; a difference of 5 degrees C produces a significant difference in SG (p less than 0.05) . A standardized procedure providing highly reproducible SG values is presented in which the size of the tissue samples, the recording time, and the temperature of the column consisting of water-treated K and MBB are kept strictly constant.

Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, 1980 Dec 30, 28(4), 443 - 60
{Study of Salmonellae in sewage of Chambery town: epidemiological relations and efficiency of water treatment plant (author's transl)}; Gautier Y et al.; An investigation on salmonellae of Chambery sewage has been conducted during a whole year (from July 1977 to June 1978); 563 strains belonging to 36 serotypes have been isolated . Salmonellosis being seldom, one has to admit an important carriage by healthy animals and human beings . The inefficiency of water-treatment plant for these germs has been confirmed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Dec, 40(6), 1115 - 21
Chlorine resistance of poliovirus isolants recovered from drinking water; Shaffer PT et al.; Poliovirus 1 isolants were recovered from finished drinking water produced by a modern, well-operated water treatment plant . These waters contained free chlorine residuals in excess of 1 mg/liter . The chlorine inactivation of purified high-titer preparations of two such isolants was compared with the inactivation behavior of two stock strains of poliovirus 1, LSc and Mahoney . The surviving fraction of virus derived from the two natural isolants was shown to be orders of magnitude greater than that of the standard strains . These results raise the question whether indirect drinking water standards based on free chlorine residuals are adequate public health measures, or whether direct standards based on virus determinations might be necessary.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Oct, 40(4), 821 - 32
Electron microscopy of Giardia lamblia cysts; Luchtel DL et al.; The flagellated protozoan Giardia lamblia is a recognized public health problem . Intestinal infection can result in acute or chronic diarrhea with associated symptoms in humans . As part of a study to evaluate removal of G . lamblia cysts from drinking water by the processes of coagulation and dual-media filtration, we developed a methodology by using 5.0-microns-porosity membrane filters to evaluate the filtration efficiency . We found that recovery rates of G . lamblia cysts by membrane filtration varied depending upon the type and diameter of the membrane filter . Examination of membrane-filtered samples by scanning electron microscopy revealed flexible and flattened G . lamblia cysts on the filter surface . This feature may be responsible for the low recovery rates with certain filters and, moreover, may have implications in water treatment technology . Formation of the cyst wall is discussed . Electron micrographs of cysts apparently undergoing binary fission and cysts exhibiting a possible bacterial association are shown.

Am J Epidemiol, 1980 Oct, 112(4), 495 - 507
Waterborne giardiasis: a communitywide outbreak of disease and a high rate of asymptomatic infection; Lopez CE et al.; A communitywide outbreak of gastrointestinal illness due to Giardia lamblia infection occurred in the city of Berlin, New Hampshire, during April and May 1977 . The clinical, epidemiologic, and laboratory aspects of this outbreak are described here . In 213 predominantly symptomatic cases of G . lamblia infection diagnosed at a local hospital laboratory in a 6-week period, illness was characterized by prolonged diarrhea (median duration 10 days) and 13% of symptomatic infections required hospitalization . Treatment with either quinacrine or metronidazole was generally followed by symptomatic improvement . A communitywide survey of the city residents revealed that the majority (76%) of G . lamblia infections occurring during the epidemic period were asymptomatic and ran a self-limited course without treatment . No significant secondary, person-to-person spread occurred and no enteric pathogens other than G . lamblia were implicated . Water was epidemiologically implicated as the most likely source of infection with Giardia cysts being demonstrated in samples of treated water as well as raw source water . Evidence supported the occurrence of two simultaneous outbreaks in this city which is supplied by two largely independent water supply systems . Inspection of the two water treatment facilities revealed several defects which permitted untreated (raw) water to mix with treated water . Human or beaver could have been responsible for contaminating source water with Giardia in this outbreak . A marked reduction in both clinical and subclinical giardiasis was apparent two months after onset of the outbreak, apparently as a result of measures applied to interrupt waterborne transmission of Giardia.

J Environ Pathol Toxicol, 1980 Sep, 4(2-3), 9 - 25
The epidemiologic perspective: water hardness and cardiovascular disease; Comstock GW; Studies of water hardness and cardiovascular disease are briefly reviewed, and the probability that the reported associations are those of cause-and-effect is assessed . While the verdict is "not proven", further studies are desirable because of the potential benefits that might accrue from water treatment . Future studies, however, need to be much more definitive than the ecological investigations of the past . Although such studies have been useful as pilot studies, the effects of a possible water factor cannot be disentangled from the effects of many personal characteristics that also vary with geography.

Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 1980 Jul 28, 209(1174), 37 - 46
Appropriate technologies for environmental hygiene; McGarry MG; Appropriate technologies for environmental hygiene usually centre on the delivery of adequate and accessible water supply, and proper treatment and disposal of excreta and refuse . In the face of the International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade of 1981-90, several research efforts are under way in the developing countries to develop technologies and approaches for improving environmental hygiene in both rural areas and urban squatter settlements . These are discussed and include the technical development and field testing of infiltration galleries, low-cost slow and fast filtration processes for water treatment, handpumps, on-site excreta disposal using aqua-privy and compost toilets, and excreta treatment and refuse through composting with refuse, biogas generation, fish culture and use of excreta as crop fertilizer . The relevant technology 'hardware' is but one of several components necessary for effective delivery of services . The dearth of qualified manpower at all levels is described as being the major constraint to the Water and Sanitation Decade.

Science, 1980 Jan 4, 207(4426), 90 - 2
Nonvolatile mutagens in drinking water: production by chlorination and destruction by sulfite; Cheh AM et al.; In concentrates of water produced in a laboratory simulation of a drinking water treatment process, direct-acting, nonvolatile mutagens were readily detected by means of the Ames Salmonella test . The mutagens were shown to be produced by the chlorination process . Treatment of the water with chloramine resulted in less mutagenic activity than treatment with free chlorine . Dechlorination of drinking water with sulfite sharply reduced the mutagenic activity . Treatment with sulfur dioxide is proposed as an effective, inexpensive method of reducing the direct-acting mutagenic activity of drinking water and of aqueous industrial effluents.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1980, 172(1-3), 192 - 207
{Membrane separation methods in water treatment . Fundamentals and technical applications (author's transl)}; Rautenbach R; The separation of material by means of synthetic membranes is increasingly gaining access in industry, and membrane separating processes have been mainly developed for the treatment of watery systems . This paper is intended to outline how membrane separating plants are to be designed . Starting from the basic process at the membrane, the material exchange behaviour of the single element (pipe, plate) and of the technical apparatus (module) is dealt with . Successful applications are used to demonstrate how the module can be fitted into an optimally working plant.

Nutr Metab, 1980, 24(5), 302 - 13
{The cholesterol-lowering effect of the unicellular green alga Scenedesmus acutus 276-3a . II . Effect of alga fractions}; Rolle I et al.; In former experiments we found that the extent of experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia in male Sprague-Dawley rats was significantly reduced by incorporation of 20% Scenedesmus powder in the diet . This paper reports on the localization of the activity in Scenedesmus powder following extraction of hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions . The fractions obtained by hot water treatment and chloroform-methanol extraction and the remaining extracted algae were incorporated in the standard diet in amounts corresponding to 20% Scenedesmus powder . In animals fed on the standard diet + 3% cholesterol for 6 weeks, the average concentration of blood plasma cholesterol increased from 2.0 to 3.5 mmol/l . The average cholesterol level in animals receiving the different algae extracts + 3% cholesterol amounted to between 2.1 and 2.9 mmol/l . The hot water extracted algae material held the plasma cholesterol levels in cholesterol-stressed animals at normal values . The content of plasma triglyceride in animals receiving the different fractions was lowered by 35-55% in nearly all groups . In cholesterol-stressed animals the excessive deposition of cholesterol in the liver was reduced by untreated algal powder as well as algal material extracted with water or chloroform/methanol . The decrease in liver cholesterol amounted to 50%.

Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd, 1979 Jul, 175(1), 103 - 6
{Improvement of visual acuity of intensely myopic patients during their eye-cure stay at Bad Hall (author's transl)}; Rieger G; Intensely myopic patients in the Eye Department of the Paracelsus-Institute in Bad Hall (Upper Austria) were subjected to visual acuity tests whereby the conditions of examination were held constant (optotype-projector, panoramic visual range, exactly defined break-off criteria) . Results showed that 33% of the patients, who had completed combined iodine treatments and ophthalmo-iontophoresis, showed an improvement in visual acuity of 3 or more optotypes, corresponding to an average increase thereof of 0,13 from the initial visual power . Side effects of intense myopia (dilatation tension and degenerative changes at the posterior eye pole) should thus be regarded as an indication of the successful application of the combined balneotherapy, mineral water treatment and eye-cure in Bad Hall.

Environ Health Perspect, 1979 Jun, 30, 211 - 6
Levels of benzo(a)pyrene in oil shale industry wastes, some bodies of water in the Estonian S.S.R . and in water organisms; Veldre IA et al.; Data on the content of benzo(a)pyrene (BP) in oil shale industry wastewater, the effectiveness of various effluent treatment processes (evaporation, extraction with butyl acetate, trickling filters, aeration tanks) in reducing the level of BP in oil shale wastewater, the level of BP in various bodies of water of Estonia, and in fish and other water organisms are reviewed . The quantitative determination of BP in concentrated diethyl ether extracts of water samples was carried out by ultraviolet and spectroluminescence procedures by use of the quasi-linear spectra at -196 degrees C in solid paraffins . It has been found that oil shale industry wastewater contains large amounts of BP . The most efficient purification process for removing the BP in oil shale industry phenol water is extraction with butyl acetate . The level of BP in the rivers of the oil shale industry area is comparatively higher than in other bodies of water of the Republic . The concentration of BP in the lakes of the Estonian S.S.R . is on the whole insignificant . Even the maximum concentration found in our lakes is as a rule less than the safety limit for BP in bodies of water (0.005 microgram/l) . During water is treated at the waterworks . The effectiveness of the water treatment in reducing the level of BP varies from 11 to 88% . Filtration was found to be the most effective treatment . About 20 samples of fish from nine bodies of water in Estonia have been analyzed for content of BP . The average content of BP in the muscular tissue of various species of fish is as a rule less than 1 microgram/kg . There is no significant difference in the concentration of BP in sea and freshwater fish . There is no important difference in the content of BP in the organs of various fish . Fat fish contain more BP than lean ones . The weight (age) of fish does not influence the content of BP in the muscular tissue of fish.

J Prosthet Dent, 1979 May, 41(5), 528 - 30
Fluoride treatment and microhardness of dentin; Seaman F et al.; Effects of various fluoride treatments on the microhardness of human dentin were determined . Treatment with acidulated phosphate-fluoride at pH 3.0 induced a significant (p less than .05) softening when compared to treatment with water . APF at pH 4.0 did not bring about a significant change . Response to treatment with 0.4% SnF2 did not differ significantly from water treatment . Sequential treatment with APF (pH 4.0) followed by SnF2 produced significant (p less than .05) hardening of dentin . This hardening with APF-SnF2 differed at a high level of significance (p less than .001) from the softening produced by the pH 3.0 APF . A similarly significant difference was found between this single APF treatment and the single SnF2 treatment . When hardening of exposed dentin surfaces is desired, the sequential treatment method should be employed.

Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol, 1979 Apr, (4), 92 - 5
{Reliability of the disinfecting action of pulse electrical discharges in water treatment}; Zhuk EG; The irreversibility of the damaging action of pulse electric discharges (PED) on microorganisms in the process of the disinfection of water was studied . The experiments with standard E . coli culture showed that bacterial cells remaining alive after being subjected to the action of PED eventually died the sooner, the higher the temperature of the medium was . In any of the "blind passages" made within 7 days no growth of the test microorganism was observed . The use of enriched fluid media and 10-day incubation did not ensure the preservation of proliferation ability of the cells after the action of PED with the parameters used in the experiment.

JACEP, 1979 Feb, 8(2), 59 - 63
Acute chlorine gas exposure; Hedges JR et al.; The heavy use of chlorine gas in industry and water purification poses the constant threat of mass gas exposure . In a recent experience with a chlorine gas disaster involving over 100 patients, 64, including six subsequently requiring admission, were treated in the main emergency unit facility . The remainder were triaged to a safe area away from the emergency unit with instructions for symptomatic treatment . Injuries were limited to four organ systems: pulmonary, gastrointestinal, ophthalmic, and cutaneous . Current treatment methods are compared with those in the literature and a protocol for management provided.

Poult Sci, 1979 Jan, 58(1), 139 - 43
Phosphate and heat treatments to control Salmonella and reduce spoilage and rancidity on broiler carcasses; Thomson JE et al.; Broiler chicken carcasses were inoculated with about 300 cells of a naladixic acid resistant strain of Salmonella typhimurium, then treated for 3 min with highly agitated water with or without 6% phosphate added, at 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, or 90 C . Other broiler carcasses were inoculated with about 60 cells, then similarly treated at 65 or 70 C . All carcasses were chilled after the hot water treatment in a system simulating commerical chilling . When inoculum was 300 cells, at least 5% of the carcasses remained contaminated with Salmonella, even when hot water treatment was at 90 C . When inoculum was 60 cells, Salmonella were eliminated by hot water treatment at 65 or 70 C . Carcasses showed a partially cooked appearance after hot water treatment . Total bacterial counts on carcasses treated at 70 and 90 C, with or without added phosphate, and then chilled were lower than on control carcasses throughout storage at 2 C for up to 26 days . Phosphates did not consistently or significantly affect either Salmonella survival or total bacterial counts . Oxidative deterioration as measured by the thiobarbituric acid test was significantly retarded throughout 26 days of storage by the addition of 6% phosphate to a 70 or 90 C hot water treatment.

Environ Mutagen, 1979, 1(4), 337 - 45
Mutagenicity of organic extracts from Canadian drinking water in the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome assay; Nestmann ER et al.; Organic extracts of chlorinated Ontario drinking water samples have been found to induce mutation and lethality in the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome histadine reversion assay . Collections of water were made at water treatment plants in five municipalities in June 1978 . To determine the reproducibility of the positive mutagenic effects found, a second sampling at the same plants was performed in September 1978 . Preparation of extracts involved passing 200 liter samples through XAD-2 resin columns which were eluted with a mixture of hexane and acetone, and the eluent was evaporated to dryness . For those extracts with sufficient organic matter, dose-related increases in mutagenicity were observed . Extracts of untreated water from a river and a well were weakly mutagenic.

J Chromatogr, 1978 Oct 1, 158, 437 - 47
Study of water treatment effects on organic volatiles in drinking water; Thomason M et al.; Volatile organics were determined during all stages of the water treatment process in a municipal water works . Analytical parameters for a quantitative procedure were investigated . The method used allows simultaneous determination of both halogenated and non-halogenated purgeable organics . Approximately 70 substances were identified by gas chromatography--mass spectrometry with capillary columns . Well water contained considerable quantities of aliphatic and aromatic substances . Halocarbons were formed during both steps of a double chlorination procedure, but the largest quantity was generated during the first step . Only tetrachloroethylene was present in untreated surface water in significant quantities . Most hydrocarbons were carried through the treatment process from the raw water to the finished water with little change in concentration.

Science, 1978 Sep 15, 201(4360), 1008 - 9
Plutonium in drinking water: effects of chlorination on its maximum permissible concentration; Larsen RP et al.; Soluble plutonium is oxidized to the Pi(VI) oxidation state by chlorine during water treatment . Under certain conditions Pi(VI) is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . It appears that due consideration has not been given to the effect that the presence of plutonium in this oxidation state may have on the maximum permissible concentration of plutonium in drinking water.

Clin Biochem, 1978 Aug, 11(4), 183 - 4
A water purification system for laboratory use; Bertsch J et al.; A water purification system is described, capable of producing Type I water upon demand at multiple locations up to 700 feet, from the purifying equipment . Tap water is initially treated employing reverse osmosis, followed by treatment with activated charcoal and mixed anion/cation exchange resins . The resultant Type I quality water is maintained by means of a recycling loop until removal upon demand . The current cost of producing water of this quality is $0.03 per liter, exclusive of capital and installation costs.

Ann Intern Med, 1978 Apr, 88(4), 502 - 4
Role of aluminum in dialysis dementia; Dunea G et al.; Between September 1972 and January 1976 an outbreak of dialysis dementia affected 20 patients maintained by long-term hemodialysis . The clinical picture was characterized by an insidious onset of altered behaviour, dementia, speech disturbance, myoclonus, and convulsions . Nineteen patients died, but one patient has survived for 16 months . It was later established that in June 1972 the city had altered its method of water purification and that this resulted in higher water aluminum levels . The temporal relation between periods of high water-aluminum content and the appearance of new cases supports the view that aluminum may play a role in the causation of dialysis dementia.

Experientia, 1978 Mar 15, 34(3), 316 - 8
Radioimmunoassay of polyacrylamide; Drewes PA et al.; Antiserum to polyacrylamide has been produced in rabbits . It can be used in a sensitive radioimmunoassay for quantitation of polyacrylamide at very low concentrations . This novel approach to the analysis of a synthetic, biologically inactive, hydrocarbon polymer has potentially widespread implications, for example, in the downstream measurement of flocculating agents used in water purification treatments.

Z Mikrosk Anat Forsch, 1978, 92(4), 770 - 80
Responses of gill to various changes in salinity in fresh water teleost Colisa fasciatus (Bl . and Schn.); Das S et al.; In the present study the effects of different osmotic conditions have been observed on the gills of a fresh water air breathing teleost Colisa fasciatus . 1 . In control fishes two types of specialised cells (mucous gland and mast cells) are found in the gill . There is no special type of "chloride cell" . None of the cells give AgNO3/HNO3 test . The size of the mucous cells varies from 5.50 micrometer to 5.94 micrometer . 2 . After distilled water treatment, the epithelium is severely swollen and at some places completely desquamated from the lamellae, leaving only the blood capillaries and supporting pilasler cells, due to endosmosis . 3 . After 40% salt water treatment the exhaustive stages in mucous glands and marked shrinkage of the entire respiratory epithelium is observed . The excess of salt causes exosmosis resulting in death of the fishes . 4 . After 8% salt water treatment the number and the size of mucous prodicing cells of treated fish increases approximately four times as compared to controlled fishes during the first week of adaptation . In case of one month treated fish the gill surface area increases extensively and is occupied by the mucous cells . These mucous producing cells are AgNO3/HNO3 positive indicating their transformation into so called "chloride cells" . The size of mucous cell increases upto 19.63 micrometer.

Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc, 1978, 15, 157 - 63
Aluminium studies in dialysis encephalopathy; Elliott HL et al.; The dialysis encephalopathy syndrome has a geographical distribution related to the aluminium content of the dialysis water supply . There is a close relationship between concentrations of water aluminium and serum aluminium, and patients with dialysis encephalopathy have serum aluminium concentrations greater than 400 microgram/litre . High serum aluminium is also associated with osteomalacic bone disease, and worsening anaemia . In dialysis encephalopathy, elevated concentrations of aluminium are found in CSF and in grey matter, and an aluminium burden of 2-8 g is calculated from whole body in vivo analysis . There is sufficient evidence for an aluminium toxicity syndrome to warrant specific removal of aluminium by water purification systems.

Environ Health Perspect, 1977 Aug, 19, 103 - 5
Arsenic in the drinking water of the city of Antofagasta: epidemiological and clinical study before and after the installation of a treatment plant; Borgono JM et al.; This is a second report of epidemiological and clinical investigation, related to the arsenic health problem, unique in the world, occurring in the city of Antofagasta, Chile . The arsenic problem originates in the chronic contamination of water supply in the city during 12 years . This phenomena, investigated clinically and epidemiologically and first reported in 1971, prompted the installation of a water treatment plant . This report aims to evaluate the working efficiency of the plant . The study was carried out through the examination of arsenic content in hair and nail clipping samples of the inhabitants of Antofagasta and the determination of this element in cultivated vegetables and carbonated beverages . Also a clinical study in school children, looking for cutaneous lesions attributed to arsenicism, was made . Results are encouraging . They reveal that contamination persists but in significantly lower levels.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1977 Aug, 164(5-6), 485 - 91
{Experience gained with ozone/activated-charcoal treatment of swimming-pools filled with sea water (author's transl)}; Jentsch F; An ozone/activated charcoal stage in the water treatment also lends itself extremely well to improving the quality of sea water in swimming pools . This improvement is typically reflected in the low content of organic substances and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, urea) and, as a result, in the high redox potentials in the swimming-pool water which are even likely to bring about a rapid inactivation of the viri . A small percentage of the bromide in the sea water is oxidised to free bromide which passes through the activated charcoal filter, counteracts the growth of germs, keeps the filtrate largely free from germs and contributes to the disinfection of the swimming pool.

J Gen Virol, 1977 Aug, 36(2), 351 - 5
Protection of mice against encephalomyocarditis virus infection by chemically modified transfer RNAs; Stebbing N et al.; Periodate or nitrous acid treatment greatly decreases the ability of unfractionated Escherichia coli transfer RNA (tRNA) to be aminoacylated by tRNA-synthetases but these treatments do not affect their antiviral activity against encephalomyocarditis virus infection of mice . Bisulphite treatment of E . coli tRNA reduces its ability to be aminoacylated by 20% and has no effect on antiviral activity . Bromine water treatment of tRNA under conditions causing extensive base modifications eliminates aminoacylation and the antiviral activity of E . coli tRNA . Periodate treatment of yeast tRNA does not affect its antiviral activity and nitrous acid treatment increases its antiviral activity to that of E . coli tRNA . The ability to be aminoacylated does not therefore appear to be essential for antiviral activity of tRNA but extensive modification (bromine water treatment) does destroy antiviral activity.

Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 1977 Mar 21, 277(955), 259 - 66
Some morphological aspects of the synaptonemal complex in higher plants; La Cour LF et al.; The synaptonemal complex is illustrated in electron micrographs from pollen mother cells (p.m.cs) of the following plants: Fritillaria lanceolata, Allium fistulosum, Tulbaghia violacea, Luzula purpurea, Phaedranassa viridiflora and the tulip cultivar Keiserkroon . The possibility that the lateral elements in synaptonemal complexes of plants are tubiform structures is discussed in relation to their fine structure and in the light of a deformity seen in them . An assessment of the evidence suggesting that both lateral and central elements in the complex are ribonucleoprotein structures is made . The effect of brief water treatment on the chromatin and synaptonemal complex at zygotene in p.m.cs of the Phaedranassa is discussed, particularly with reference to two precisely oriented axial strands then seen running between the lateral elements . Examination of stages of premeiotic interphase and early leptotene in p.m.cs of the Fritillaria, revealed that the axial cores laid down at leptotene are formed first in heterochromatic regions, which in this species are locked in chromocentres that persist until pachytene . Further, at leptotene the chromatin in these parts was singularly more decondensed (diffuse) than at any other period, including the premeiotic interphase, subsequent stages of meiosis and mitotic cycle in meristems . It is suggested that the diffuse state of the chromatin in chromocentres at the onset of leptotene, allows the necessary freedom of movement required to promote homologous pairing of the heterochromatic segments . Evidence of such a movement was indicated by a change in position of the nucleoli, which moved from a more central position at early premeiotic interphase to a peripheral one at the onset of leptotene, when they are seen adpressed to the nuclear envelope.

Sci Total Environ, 1977 Mar, 7(2), 99 - 108
Ozone in drinking water treatment: a review; Lawrence J et al.; The paper reviews the application of ozone for the treatment of potable water . The period covered by the review is 1937--1975 . A complete bibliography is available from the authors upon request.

J Embryol Exp Morphol, 1977 Feb, 37(1), 65 - 77
Effects of extremely low osmolarity on fertilized mouse eggs; Opas J; When fertilized one-cell eggs are subjected to distilled water treatment for 2-6 min, cytoplasm bulges through the sperm-slit in the zona pellucida and forms a cytoplasmic fragment (CF) . CFs were observed in 86-5% of eggs; in 20-9% of cases CFs contained a pronucleus (or pronuclei) . In 53-4% of eggs permanent incorporation of the second polar body (2 P.B.) into the egg cytoplasm occurred . These phenomena occurring in different combinations produced 6-2% of haploid eggs, 10-3% of diploid eggs with a pronucleus replaced by 2 P.B . nucleus, and 43-1% of triploid eggs . 4-4% of eggs were enucleated . The remaining group comprised diploid eggs which were either not affected by the treatment (6-4%) or lost a certain amount of cytoplasm by formation of an anucleate CF (29-6%) . The frequencies of the types of reaction were related to the post-fertilization stage of eggs . All eggs except the enucleated ones were able to develop to the stage of morula or blastocyst . Triploids developed until the 12th day of pregnancy and diploids that had lost up to 15% of the cytoplasm developed to term . There was a twofold reduction in the percentage of preimplantation development when treated eggs originated from induced rather than spontaneous ovulation.

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 1977, 43(2), 187 - 97
The occurrence of Pseudomonas spp . in surface water and in tap water as determined on citrate media; van der Kooij D; Citrate-utilizing bacteria were counted in 289 samples of tap water derived from either surface water or ground water and in 32 samples of raw or partially treated surface water by using media containing ferric ammonium citrate as the carbon and energy source . The citrate-utilizing bacteria constituted only small minorities of the colony counts on Lab-Lemco agar at 25 C in both tap water and surface water . A total of 1071 isolates were obtained, of which 979 were able to utilize citrate . Characterization of the citrate-utilizing isolates revealed that 90% of these bacteria were arginine dihydrolase-positive and belonged to the genera Pseudomonas (84.3%) and Aeromonas (5.7%) . The genus Pseudomonas was represented by fluorescent pseudomonads (66.3%), non-fluorescent glucose-utilizing pseudomonads (12.1%) and P . alcaligenes (5.9%) . None of the isolates was identified as P . aeruginosa . It is suggested that the pseudomonads and the aeromonads are not adapted to low substrate concentrations . Enumeration of the citrate-utilizing bacteria in tap water therefore may give information on the efficiency of water treatment techniques as regards the substrate removal.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1977, 164(4), 352 - 9
{Detoxification of staphylococcal-enterotoxin B in water (author's transl)}; Meyer G et al.; Staphylococcal enterotoxin B contaminated water has been detoxified with calcium hypochlorite used in the water treatment procedure which is available now in order to get drinking water from surface water in emergency cases . Changes in toxin-activity were measured serologically by agar-gel-immuno-precipitation as well as biologically by the "monkey-feeding test" with young macaca mulatta . With an initial concentration of 50 ppm chlorine in tap water resp . 200 ppm in native surface water concentrations of toxin up to 40 fold average emetic dose of rhesus monkey could be inactivated safely . It was pointed out an obvious conformity between precipitation test and monkey-feeding test . The clinical efficiency of SEB on rhesus monkeys has been investigated and discussed subsequently.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1976 Jul, 162(1-2), 205 - 10
{Heavy metal content in sediment samples taken from drinking-water reservoir (author's transl)}; Mihm U et al.; Sediment samples were taken from the small preliminary catchment basin of the Wahnbachtal reservoir at Siegburg, extracted under mild conditions with nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide and analysed for their content of heavy metals . The sediment sample of the most recent date showed the highest concentrations of metal, that of older date revealed lower values, but by far the lowest metal content was found in the clay of the former valley . The high metal contents in the sediment are not only to be attributed to human influence but are primarily caused by the lead and zinc ores in the catchment area . The hygienic significance of these results is to be seen in the remobilization processes which could lead to an undesirable increase of metal concentrations in the raw water fed to the drinking water treatment plant.

Am J Public Health, 1976 Jul, 66(7), 639 - 43
Drinking water for the future; Okun DA; The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 represents an important step in improving the quality of public water supply in the United States . However, it fails to address two important problems: (1) The 1970 Public Health Service Community Water Supply Survey revealed that small public water supply systems often deliver poor quality water . The Act does not assure that these supplies will now receive appropriate attention; furthermore, the Act does not address the needs of the 50 million people not now served by public water systems; (2) About one-third of our population draws its drinking waters from polluted sources . The decisions to use these low cost sources were made generations ago when consumers could be protected from water-borne infectious disease . A new problem has now arisen--the presence of numerous synthetic organic chemicals of uncertain health consequence, not removed by conventional water treatment . The Act does not address this problem . Regionalization and the integration of water resource and water pollution control authorities are proposed as a reasonable solution to these problems . The development of dual water supply systems in order to conserve scarce pure water sources for human consumption appears to be a feasible way to avoid using polluted waters for drinking . The development of dual supplies would be enhanced by regionalization and integration of water authorities.

J Chromatogr Sci, 1976 Apr, 14(4), 187 - 90
Application of a computer-based chromatograph for automated water pollution analyses; Dowty B et al.; A modified head-space analysis technique, coupling thermal extraction with subsequent adsorption of organics on a poly (para 2,6-diphenyl phenylene) oxide adsorbent (Tenax-GC), has been found to be an efficacious tool when combined with gas chromatography for the study and monitoring of low molecular weight organics present in drinking water supplies (1-4) . This procedure has allowed for the analysis of volatile organics in the low parts-per-billion range from 1 liter or less of tap water . Because thermal extraction requires smaller sample sizes than required in carbon-chloroform extraction methods and liquid/liquid extractions, the EPA has recently adopted this type of methodology (5,6) . Passage of the Safe Water Drinking Act in December of 1974 has mandated that each state assumes the primary responsibility for carrying out the purposes of the legislation (7) . Because the Act says that any supplier of water serving 25 individuals or more must comply with these regulations, large-scale monitoring programs will have to be undertaken . It was thus our desire to try to simplify the sample collection and data acquistion and reduction processes as much as possible, in the effort to make the procedure more adaptable for incorporation into routine monitoring programs . Also, automation reduces the experience and number of personnel required to perform the analyses . In addition to analysis of drinking water samples, the automated procedure described hereinafter can also be applied to monitoring industrial plant effluents, waste water treatment processes, and general quality control monitoring of low molecular weight organic compounds.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1976 Mar, 161(5-6), 498 - 518
{The use of an enzyme-kinetic-method for bacteriological examinations of heavy polluted surface waters (author's transl)}; Tiefenbrunner F et al.; The greatest fraction of nutrients dissolved in water are organic substances which are decomposed, transformed and mineralized by heterotrophic microorganisms . For this reason, investigations concerning energy transfer in an aquatic ecosystem, or practical examinations of the pollution load of surface waters, cannot be set up when based exclusively on more or less good counts of microorganisms of the production or destruction group . Above all, it is important for heterotrophic bacteria that productivity parameters for these numerical estimations are also provided . PARSON and STRICKLAND were successful in measuring the uptake of organic material in waters with uptake-kinetic methods; HOBBIE and WRIGHT developed a method for measuring the uptake of marked test-substrates in certain concentration ranges . As a result, for these substrates it was possible to measure the turnover in natural populations . Consequently, after frequent improvement of the technique in determining the decomposition rates of individual organic substrates, a way was found not only to determine static descriptions of an aquatic biotope, but also to make possible a dynamic description of nutrient transfers . The kinetic parameters computed from these measurements are: the maximum uptake velocity (Vmax), the turnover velocity (Tt) and the transport constant (Kt) (Michaelis Constant) . The maximum uptake velocity of a substrate can be regarded as the "heterotrophic capacity" of the biotope for this substrate . One restriction is, however, that only quickly assimilatable substrates can be used, as for example hexoses, organic acids, amino acids, etc . Since this technique was tested practically only in oligotrophic waters, this study undertakes to investigate its applicability in polluted biotopes and to answer the question whether a decomposition gradient is reflected in the kinetic data . A small eutrophic lake in the eastern section of the Holstein Lake District (350 ha, 9.5 m mean water depth) was chosen as the test biotope . Emptying into the lake was the runoff of a biological water treatment plant with 12,000 population equivalents and without notable business and industry . In a rectangular investigation area at first with 30 sampling stations positioned close to the outlet of the water treatment plant into the lake, kinetic tests were carried out in 48 hour intervals and then compared with bacteriological, chemical and meteorological sample results taken at the same time . Two typical result-blocks are illustrated (Fig . 1-4, 5-8) . The first shows four successive test days with periodically strong wind and light to fairly strong but short periods of precipitation . The second block illustrates conditions during a following period of fair weather with only very light wind intensities . The corresponding conditions of the stratification of the drainage water in the investigation area are illustrated by the distribution of coliform organisms . In two other tables the kinetic parameters and individual, dominant data are contrasted numerically...

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 1976 Feb, 15(2), 155 - 61
A rapid and sensitive method for gas chromatographic analysis of the selective piscicide, "Squaxon"; Gabica J et al.; "Squaxon" (1,1'methylenedi- 2 napthol; bis (2 hydroxy-1- naphthyl) methane) was discovered by MacPhee and Ruelle (1968, 1969) to exhibit piscicidal properties that are highly species specific . The chemical is lethal to the Northern (Ptychocheilus oregonensis) and the Umpqua (P . umpquae) squawfish, freshwater cyprinids common to the Pacific Northwest, at water treatment concentrations of less than 100 parts per billion (ppb) . Other species of fish, including the more desirable salmonids with which the squawfish competes ecologically, are unaffected until this dosage has been increased severalfold . Because squawfish are widely regarded as undesirable for food or sporting purposes, and because competition from squawfish has severely depleted salmonid populations in some areas (Thompson, 1959; Jeppson and Platts, 1959) the potential use of squaxon for fisheries improvement is quite obvious . Squaxon is currently being tested for this purpose on an experimental basis in selected areas in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, pending federal clearance for more widespread application.

Acta Microbiol Pol, 1976, 25(4), 353 - 60
Studies on the biodegradation of nonionic surfactants applied in the polyestre fibre industry . III . Effect of adaptation on the respiratory activity of organisms and on the biocenosis of inoculated sludge; Rzechowska E; Manometric studies were conducted in 3 series . In the first one the sludge used for inoculation was non adapted to water purification containing surfactants . In the second and third series it was adapted to the sludge load 0.11 and 0.28 mg surfactant/mg d.w./day respectively . Increase in oxygen uptake was proportional to the degree of the adaptation of microorganisms only within limited range of surfactant concentration not exceeding 500 mg/l for Cirrasol FP and 1000 mg/l for Cirrasol SF and Cirrasol TCS . The toxic action of surfactants against Ciliata was noted at concentration above 100 mg/l and for Mastigota and Sarcodina above 500 mg/l, even by using adapted sludge for inoculation.

Kosm Biol Aviakosm Med, 1976 Jan-Feb, 10(1), 73 - 5
{Sorption method of water regeneration for cosmonaut personal hygiene}; Gaidadymov VA et al.; The paper describes sanitary-hygienic and technological investigations aimed at development of the sorption method of water reclamation for personal hygiene needs of cosmonauts from wash water . Catamine-AB was used as a detergent with bactericidal properties . Manned experiments helped to identify the conditions that provided an adequate cleaning of skin and simultaneous sterilization of wash water . The technology of wash water purification was developed, proper sorbents were selected and recommended values of their use were established.

Pestic Monit J, 1975 Dec, 9(3), 117 - 23
Analysis of various Iowa waters for selected pesticides: atrazine, DDE, and dieldrin-1974; Richard JJ et al.; Atrazine, DDE, and dieldrin were extracted and concentrated from various surface, subsurface, and finished waters using the macroreticular resin method . Organic components in the concentrates from these waters were separated by gas chromatography; the amounts of the three pesticides in the waters ranged from 0.5 to 42,000 parts per trillion by weight . Every major watershed in the State of Iowa revealed some degree of pesticide contamination and seasonal variations were consistent with agricultural runoff models . Atrazine concentrations were highest of the three pesticides, a symptom of its widespread use in the corn belt . DDE also appeared in substantial quantities, providing further evidence of the persistence of DDT and its metabolites . Water from several shallow wells and finished water from many water treatment plants were also contaminated . Current treatment processes do not effectively remove these pesticides.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1975 Dec, 161(3), 233 - 47
{Water disinfection by means of chlorine: killing of aggregate bacteria (author's transl)}; Carlson S et al.; Rising water demands ask for an increasing utilization of more or less contaminated surface water that has to be chlorinated prior to treatment . Especially during periods of lake bloom, the desired disinfecting effect is not achieved in spite of high concentrations of chlorine present . This is due to a coating of bacterial surfaces by substances such as algal products having a protective effect as demonstrated in experimental studies by the authors . Bacteria in a central position within bacterial aggregates as e . g . formed by the addition of flocculants in the process of water treatment, are also protected against the action of chlorine . In cases of inadequate filter backwashing, such aggregates may penetrate into clean water . Accumulations of bacteria in the shape of widespread growth may also form on activated carbon filters, ion exchangers, at walls of tanks under unfavourable hydraulic concitions, and in stagnant parts of supply pipes . Curves depiciting the kill of dyspectic E . coli differentiated by O-agglutination and S . anatum were exhibiting longer survival periods as compared with non-aggregate bacteria . For organisms differentiated by H-agglutination, kill was between these values . The killing rate was found to be a function of the oxidation-reduction poteential . Furthermore, survival times for E . coli and S . anatum were found to be different . It has been confirmed by these experiments that chlorine concentrations as common in the practice of water works frequently do not suffice to kill bacteria within aggregates and that a colony count does not permit conclusions as to the bacterial count if bacterial aggregates are present.

Lancet, 1975 Oct 18, 2(7938), 732 - 4
Pyrogenic reactions during haemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin; Hindman SH et al.; Between July 24 and Aug . 19, 1974, an outbreak of pyrogenic reactions occurred in patients at a private haemodialysis centre in a suburb of Washington, D.C . 49 reactions characterised by chills, fever, and hypotension occurred in twenty-three of the seventy patients dialysed during this period . No infections could be documented in any of the affected individuals . Despite the fact that only low levels of gram-negative bacterial contamination of the haemodialysis system were found, high levels of endotoxin contamination of dialysis fluid and endotoxaemia in patients experiencing overt reactions were recorded using the Limulus lysate test . The cause of these reactions was traced to an increase in endotoxin contamination of the tap water used to prepare dialysate, possibly caused by an increase in the algae levels in the local water source . The installation of a reverse osmosis system for water treatment may be a solution to the problem of endotoxin contamination of water used to prepare dialysis fluid.

Rev Epidemiol Med Soc Sante Publique, 1975 Sep, 23(6), 321 - 43
{Antibiotic resistance plasmids in Salmonella; ecology and epidemiology about one pattern: Salmonella panama (author's transl)}; Mizon F et al.; A systematical investigation on Salmonella has been carried out in sewage and waste water treatment plant effluents . Antibiotic resistance then resistance transfert study make evident the plasmid interference . From Salmonella panama, studies have been attempted to file and to identify resistance plasmids of this very diffused serotype . Epidemiological consequences of this classification are discussed.

Environ Qual Saf Suppl, 1975, 4, 12 . - 42
Fluorescent whitening agents in the environment; Zinkernagel R; Publication Types:

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