Am J Kidney Dis, 1995 May, 25(5), 738 - 50 Quality of hemodialysis water: a 7-year multicenter study; Laurence RA et al.; Since dialysis was introduced 30 years ago, constant progress in technology permitted shortening the length of hemodialysis (HD) sessions . Through growing concerns about the inadequacy of tap water for dialysate production, hospitals soon opted for water treatment systems dedicated to HD . Nonetheless, persistent bacterial contamination and the occurrence of pyrogenic reactions were reported in some HD centers . Several factors contributing to this situation were identified . After the introduction of highly permeable synthetic membranes in the late 1970s, microbiologic problems reappeared . Thus, in 1977, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued proposed guidelines for HD water quality, followed in 1981 by an American National Standard for HD water, issued by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) . This Standard was also followed in Canada up to 1986, at which time a National Standard for Canada was released by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) . This prompted the Laboratoire de sante publique du Quebec (LSPQ) to implement in the Province of Quebec a voluntary HD water quality monitoring program . All 36 HD centers in the Province agreed to participate . The program was launched in February 1987 . Water was sampled monthly for bacteria over a 7-year period (February 1987 to January 1994), and every 3 months for pyrogen and chemicals . Participation was more than 95% . Bacteriologic samples were processed in duplicate on heterotrophic plate count agar by the pour plate technique . Incubation was for 48 +/- 3 hours at 35 +/- 0.5 degrees C, and the colonies were counted on a Quebec colony counter (New Brunswick Scientific Co, New Brunswick, NJ) . Pyrogen determinations were made using the limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test on 1:20 sample dilution by the gel-clot method . Chemical elements were measured by inductively coupled plasma emission, graphite furnace absorption, conductivity, ultraviolet light absorption, or colorimetry . Only fully treated HD water samples were selected from the 11,000 water samples received . Of the 5,820 samples retained for this study, 3,547 were for bacterial, 1,112 for pyrogen, and 1,161 for chemical analyses . Overall compliance to the CSA Standard was 70% for bacteria, 56% for pyrogen, and 86% for chemistry . The performance of different types of water treatments were compared and discussed; the best overall compliance was obtained by reverse osmosis combined with deionization (RO + DI) . The type of water treatment that proved most popular was RO alone, which was used by 22 HD centers (61%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS) Pediatrics, 1995 May, 95(5), 733 - 7 Inadequate basic preventive health measures: survey of missionary children in sub-Saharan Africa; Dwelle TL; OBJECTIVE . To determine the prevalence of basic preventive health measures for missionary children of sub-Saharan Africa . DESIGN . A retrospective survey of the immunization status, water and vegetable treatment, malaria prophylaxis and prevention, fluoride prophylaxis, immune globulin (human) prophylaxis, and preventive education was completed on 35 missionary children, aged 8 months to 17 years (7.3 year average), from several sub-Saharan African countries . RESULTS . Immunizations were incomplete in 91% of the children . Preventive measures were inappropriate for water treatment in 16%, cleaning of vegetables in 35%, malaria prophylaxis and prevention in 81%, fluoride prophylaxis in 84%, and immune globulin (human) prophylaxis in 94% of veteran children . Blood type was unknown in 86% and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase status was unknown in all children . Sixty seven percent of the children recently examined received no preventive education . CONCLUSIONS . Missionary children of sub-Saharan Africa are not provided necessary preventive health services . Physicians and agencies working with these children must provide appropriate preventive health guidance and services. J Burn Care Rehabil, 1995 May-Jun, 16(3 Pt 1), 280 - 3 Corrosion of stainless steel pipes in a hydrotherapy pool by a silver-copper disinfection system; Nguyen ND et al.; The silver-copper disinfection system has been shown to be effective for water purification . It emits silver ions that combine with bacteria, causing their death . While disinfecting the water, these silver ions exhibit adverse effects on the stainless steel pipes in hydrotherapy pools . In an oxidation-reduction reaction the silver ions are converted into solid silver that is deposited on stainless steel, causing a corrosion reaction . The corroded steel has a black deposit that readily adheres to the burned patient's skin. Food Addit Contam, 1995 May-Jun, 12(3), 479 - 83 Aspergillus flavus-induced chitosanase in germinating corn and peanut seeds: A . flavus mechanism for growth dominance over associated fungi and concomitant aflatoxin production; Cuero RG et al.; Chitosanase, a new class of enzymes with antifungal properties was induced by toxigenic Aspergillus flavus in both germinating corn and peanut seeds . The enzyme was partially purified and fractioned by SDS-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis activity and copolymerized with chitosan or glycolchitosan as substrate, then quantified by scanning densitometry and a 2-dimensional analysis software program . Chitosanase enzyme was markedly induced by toxigenic A . flavus growing in germinating corn and peanut seeds, as compared to control (water) which showed the lowest activity (almost nil in corn) . However, chitosanase induction was higher in seeds treated with chitosan from crustacea . Overall, enzyme activity was higher in peanut than in corn seeds . However, electrophoresed gels from peanut treated with A . flavus or water showed more polypeptides (three and one, respectively) than gels from corn seeds, which only showed one polypeptide for both A . flavus and water treatment . The enzyme molecular weight was estimated to be between 36,000 and 45,000. Am J Hypertens, 1995 Apr, 8(4 Pt 1), 358 - 64 Overall hemodynamic studies after the chronic inhibition of endothelial-derived nitric oxide in rats; Huang M et al.; Previous studies have demonstrated that an acute intravenous administration of nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) causes a sustained hypertension and widespread vasoconstriction . However, little information is available regarding the chronic effect of L-NAME on circulatory hemodynamics . Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to characterize both the systemic and regional hemodynamics after the chronic inhibition of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in male Sprague Dawley rats . The rats were divided into two groups: control (n = 8) and L-NAME (n = 8) . The rats in the control group received only tap water and the rats in the L-NAME group received oral L-NAME solution at a dose of 0.1 mg/mL in the drinking water ad libitum . Four weeks after L-NAME or tap water treatment the rats were anesthetized with inactin, and mean arterial blood pressure, cardiac output, and individual organ flows were measured . Cardiac output and individual organ flows were measured using radioactive microspheres . Chronic administration of L-NAME resulted in a significant increase in mean arterial blood pressure from a control value of 118 +/- 4 mm Hg to 174 +/- 8 mm Hg (P < .01) . Cardiac output decreased from a control value of 29 +/- 2 mL/min/100 g to 20 +/- 2 mL/min/100 g (P < .01) and total peripheral resistance increased from a control value of 4.3 +/- 0.3 mm Hg/mL/min/100 g to 9.7 +/- 1.4 mm Hg/mL/min/100 g (P < .01) . In addition, chronic L-NAME treatment resulted in a widespread vasoconstriction and decrease in regional blood flows.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) JAMA, 1995 Mar 22-29, 273(12), 948 - 53 Safe water treatment and storage in the home . A practical new strategy to prevent waterborne disease; Mintz ED et al.; In many parts of the developing world, drinking water is collected from unsafe surface sources outside the home and is then held in household storage vessels . Drinking water may be contaminated at the source or during storage; strategies to reduce waterborne disease transmission must safeguard against both events . We describe a two-component prevention strategy, which allows an individual to disinfect drinking water immediately after collection (point-of-use disinfection) and then to store the water in narrow-mouthed, closed vessels designed to prevent recontamination (safe storage) . New disinfectant generators and better storage vessel designs make this strategy practical and inexpensive . This approach empowers households and communities that lack potable water to protect themselves against a variety of waterborne pathogens and has the potential to decrease the incidence of waterborne diarrheal disease. Harefuah, 1995 Feb 15, 128(4), 213 - 6, 263 {Medical problems of Israelis travelling to tropical countries}; Shapira I et al.; Questionnaires were sent to 1500 Israelis who traveled overseas following evaluation and preparation in a travel advisory clinic . Of 517 who responded, 227 were males, and the mean age was 25 years . The most commonly encountered medical problems were insect bites (25%), diarrhea (67%), skin conditions (23%), high altitude problems (19%), tropical diseases (11%) and respiratory tract diseases (12%) . Of the 476 who took antimalarial prophylaxis, there were possible side effects in 81 (17%) . Insect repellents and water purification were used by 435 and 312 travelers, respectively, and condoms by 103 . Young Israelis commonly tour for prolonged periods through Asia, Africa and Latin America, and often acquire a wide spectrum of medical diseases, both infectious and noninfectious . A program of professional consultation and immunization is important in the prevention of travel-related disease. Biodegradation, 1995, 6(4), 319 - 27 A rationale for the appropriate amount of inoculum in ready biodegradability tests; Struijs J et al.; Several screening methods at the so-called ready biodegradability level are suitable to test poorly soluble substances . Typical for these tests is that mineralization is evaluated from monitoring oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide production . Unfortunately, they suffer from a rather low precision in the calculated percentage of mineralization caused by subtracting a too high inoculum control measurement from the response in the test system . Criteria for blank oxygen consumption, due to the metabolic activity of the inoculum, are proposed from which maximum amounts of activated sludge or secondary effluent per litre test medium can be derived to be used as an appropriate inoculum . Both for current and future standardized tests the precision of the method can be kept within acceptable margins . Inoculum material was sampled from 40 communal biological waste water treatment plants . From endogenous respiration rates it was derived that the concentration of secondary effluent in the Closed Bottle Test can be increased up to 50 mL/L but that in respirometry tests inoculated with activated sludge the appropriate concentration is 10 mg/L dry matter or below, depending of the design of the test system. Chemosphere, 1995 Jan, 30(1), 51 - 67 PCDD/Fs and non-o-PCBs in digested U.K . sewage sludges; Sewart A et al.; Twelve digested sewage sludges from rural and urban waste water treatment works in the north-west of England were analysed for PCDD/Fs and non-o-PCBs . The PCDD/F analysis of eight samples was repeated using high-resolution mass spectrometry, which enabled detection of the lower chlorinated congeners and calculation of TE values . sigma TEQ values for these eight samples ranged from 19-206 ng/kg with the higher values detected in the samples from urban/industrial areas . Examination of the congener/homologue profiles for the more contaminated samples suggests a major input from the use of pentachlorophenol . Archived sewage sludge samples collected and stored from one sewage treatment works in the south of England between 1942 and 1960 were analyzed to gain some insight into temporal trends and possible variations in source inputs . These provide some evidence of changing sources of PCDD/Fs over time and a decline in sigma TEQs since the 1950s. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1995 Jan, 80(1), 220 - 3 Thyroid adaptation to chronic tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablet use; LeMar HJ et al.; Tetraglycine hydroperiodide tablets purify water by liberating 8 mg free iodine/tablet . The effects of ingesting four tablets daily for 3 months on thyroid size, function, and radioactive iodine uptake were studied prospectively in eight healthy volunteers . Serum inorganic iodide increased from 2.7 to approximately 100 micrograms/dL . Urinary iodide excretion rose 150-fold from a pretreatment mean of 0.276 to 40 mg/day . Radioactive iodine uptake was less than 2% after 7 days and remained below 2% in all subjects at 90 days . Mean serum T4 and T3 declined after 7 days . T4 remained below baseline, whereas T3 had recovered by the end of the treatment period . Serum TSH and the TSH response to TRH rose significantly after 7 days and remained elevated at 3 months . The average thyroid volume, determined by ultrasound, increased by 37% . Neither hyperthyroidism nor hypothyroidism was observed . The mean thyroid volume in seven subjects available for repeat determinations an average of 7.1 months after the study was not different from the baseline value . In normal subjects, a reversible TSH-dependent thyroid enlargement occurs in response to the iodine load from daily use of tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablets. Blood Purif, 1995, 13(3-4), 153 - 9 Technical challenges to successful dialyzer reuse; Ward RA; Limitations of dialyzer reuse technology may contribute to adverse patient outcomes . Assessing changes in dialyzer performance by measuring changes in total cell volume may not be valid for all membranes and reprocessing methods . Systems which determine dialyzer performance on-line are superior . Compliance with standards for microbial contamination of reprocessing fluids is poor and improvements in water treatment system design and monitoring are needed . Technological innovation is required to enable dialyzer performance to be monitored over an expanded molecular weight range and to ensure that dialyzer reprocessing can be routinely performed with sterile, non-pyrogenic solutions. Neurotoxicology, 1995 Spring, 16(1), 187 - 90 Uptake of trace amounts of aluminum into the brain from drinking water; Walton J et al.; Throughout the world, alum (aluminum sulfate) is used in municipal water treatment plants to clarify water . Alum treatment usually removes aluminosilicate particles from drinking water but can substantially increase its soluble aluminum content (Zhang et al., 1994; Tran et al., 1993; Kopp, 1970) . Soluble aluminum is the more bioavailable and potentially toxic form . We gavaged simulated tap water, containing a low level of radioactive soluble aluminum (26Al), into the stomachs of rats . Measurements with accelerator mass spectrometry showed that trace amounts of 26Al from this single exposure directly entered their brain tissue . Uptake of a comparable level of aluminum into the human brain, from alum-treated drinking water over a prolonged period of time, may contribute to long-term health consequences for some people. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 1995, 10 Suppl 3, 13 - 21 Renal osteodystrophy: pathogenesis and management; Gonzalez EA et al.; Several biochemical and hormonal abnormalities associated with renal insufficiency lead to complex disorders of bone which are described by the term renal osteodystrophy . Assessment of renal osteodystrophy in its early stages is primarily biochemical since symptoms generally do not occur until osteodystrophy is advanced . Therapy should be initiated early in the course of renal insufficiency in order to prevent the development of severe skeletal abnormalities . Foremost among the multiple factors involved in the pathogenesis of hyperparathyroidism are retention of phosphorus and low levels of calcitriol . The principal therapies for the prevention and treatment of hyperparathyroidism include the use of calcium salts taken with meals, as phosphorus binders, to prevent the absorption of phosphorus from the intestine, correction of acidosis and careful use of vitamin D metabolites such as calcitriol or 1-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol . The prevalence of aluminum induced osteomalacia appears to be declining as aluminum salts have been replaced by calcium containing phosphate binders and there is increased attention to adequate water purification for dialysis . Other disorders such as adynamic bone and the accumulation of beta 2-microglobulin may require bone biopsy for accurate diagnosis and are more difficult to treat effectively. Bull Pan Am Health Organ, 1994 Dec, 28(4), 324 - 30 Lemon juice as a natural biocide for disinfecting drinking water; D'Aquino M et al.; The natural biocidal activity of lemon juice was studied in order to explore its possible use as a disinfectant and inhibitor of Vibrio cholerae in drinking water for areas lacking water treatment plants . From January through July 1993, water samples of varying alkalinity and hardness were prepared artificially, and underground and surface water samples were obtained from a number of different rural and urban areas in Argentina's Buenos Aires Province . After measuring the latter samples' hardness and alkalinity, a range of concentrations of lemon juice and other acidifiers were added to each sample, and the resulting pH as well as the samples' ability to destroy V . cholerae were determined . The results show that lemon juice can actively prevent survival of V . cholerae but that such activity is reduced in markedly alkaline water . For example, treatment of underground drinking water, which is characterized as having the greatest degree of alkalinity in our area, will typically destroy V . cholerae if the alkalinity of the water is the equivalent of that produced by 200 mg CaCO3 per liter, if enough lemon juice is added to bring the lemon juice concentration to 2%, and if the lemon juice is allowed to act for 30 minutes . All this points up the need to determine the alkalinity of water from any local source to be treated in the process of assessing the minimum concentration of lemon juice required. Nurs Manage, 1994 Dec, 25(12), 44 - 6 The Midwest flood of 1993: surviving prolonged water loss; Gregory CA et al.; The Midwest Flood of 1993 was one of the most devastating and challenging disasters in Iowa's history . The city's water supply became contaminated, leaving more than 250,000 residents and all seven metropolitan medical centers without water . Despite heroic sandbagging efforts, floodwaters invaded the Des Moines water treatment plant's filtration system . The major strategies used at this facility during the disaster provide a framework for effective, coordinated emergency response. J Toxicol Environ Health, 1994 Nov, 43(3), 305 - 25 Toxicology studies of a chemical mixture of 25 groundwater contaminants: hepatic and renal assessment, response to carbon tetrachloride challenge, and influence of treatment-induced water restriction; Simmons JE et al.; Because groundwater contamination is an important environmental concern, we examined the hepatic and renal effects of repeated exposure to a mixture of 25 chemicals frequently found in groundwater near hazardous-waste disposal sites and the effect of such exposure on carbon tetrachloride (CCI4) toxicity . Adult male F-344 rats received ad libitum deionized water and feed (Ad Lib Water) or ad libitum 10% MIX (referring to 10% of a technically achievable stock mixture) and feed for 14 d . Because exposure to the 25-chemical mixture via the drinking water resulted in decreased water and feed consumption, restricted deionized water and feed controls (Restricted Water) were included . On d 14, rats were gavaged with 0, 0.0375, 0.05, 0.075 or 0.15 ml CCl4/kg, and hepatic and renal toxicity assessed 24 h later . Little or no hepatic and renal toxicity was observed in rats exposed to 10% MIX alone . No hepatic or renal lesions occurred that could be attributed to 10% MIX alone . Slight but statistically significant alterations, of uncertain biological significance, resulted from the water treatments: 10% MIX increased alanine aminotransferase, urea nitrogen (BUN), and BUN/creatinine ratio; Restricted Water increased 5'-nucleotidase and decreased alkaline phosphatase . Relative kidney weight was increased by both 10% MIX and Restricted Water . CCI4 resulted in significant dosage-dependent hepatotoxicity in all three water treatment groups but had little or no effect on renal indicators of toxicity . Relative to Ad Lib Water, significantly greater hepatotoxicity occurred in both 10% MIX and Restricted Water rats . The response to CCI4 in the Restricted Water rats was similar to that of 10% MIX rats, indicating that a substantial portion of the effect of 10% MIX on CCI4 hepatotoxicity is due to decreased water and feed intake. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1994 Oct, 196(3), 197 - 226 {Purification systems using plants . Principles--method variations--use possibilities}; Thofern U; Constructed wetlands are natural (waste) water treatment systems that combine biological, chemical and physical processes . In recent years various plants with distinct design features such as size, flow characteristics and type of vegetation have been built and operated worldwide . Meanwhile a lot of data regarding the efficiency and reliability are available that enable engineers, operators and water boards to select a suitable system for many applications. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1994 Sep 16, 43(36), 661 - 9 Assessment of inadequately filtered public drinking water--Washington, D.C., December 1993; Boilerbaisse: an outbreak of methemoglobinemia in New Jersey in 1992; Centers for Disease Control and PreventionBACKGROUND . On October 20, 1992, > 40 children from one elementary school visited the school nurse due to the acute onset of blue lips and hands, vomiting, and headache during and after the school lunch periods . Forty-nine children were seen by physicians that day and 14 were hospitalized . Laboratory analysis revealed methemoglobinemia in many of the children . All recovered in 36 hours . OBJECTIVE . A case-control study was supplemented by environmental and laboratory investigations to determine the outbreak source . METHODS . Cases were selected based on the laboratory diagnosis of methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin level > 2%) . Children whose methemoglobin levels were missing or < 2% were excluded from analysis . Controls were obtained by selecting every third name from a school roster . The parents of 29 students who met the case definition and 52 controls were interviewed . RESULTS . All 29 cases and 33% (17/52) of the controls ate soup during the school lunch (odds ratio undefined, lower 95% confidence limit 16.1) . Two pots of soup were prepared from ready-to-serve cans, which were diluted with water and enriched with a commercially prepared flavor enhancer . The school's boiler, dormant during the previous 5 months, was restarted on the morning of the outbreak . The boiler also served as a tankless hot water heater . Laboratory analysis of the soup identified abnormally high quantities of nitrite (459 ppm) and sodium metaborate, major components of the boiler water treatment solution . Undiluted soup from the same lot had 2.0 ppm nitrites; the flavor enhancer had 2.2 ppm nitrites . Nitrites were present in the hot potable water system (4 to 10 ppm) and absent in the cold potable water system . CONCLUSIONS . This outbreak of methemoglobinemia due to nitrite poisoning was traced to soup contaminated by nitrites in a boiler additive . Nitrites are ubiquitous and potentially hazardous inorganic ions . Extreme caution should be used when the possibility for toxic human exposure to nitrites exists. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol, 1994 Sep, 45(3), 275 - 84 {Man, the environment and ozone}; Pavlovic M et al.; Ozone is a naturally occurring gas, formed in the trimolecular reaction of oxygen atoms with molecular oxygen . Its strong absorption in the UV region provides protection from excessive irradiation of the Earth's surface . Occupational exposure to ozone involves electric arc welding, mercury vapour lamps, office photocopy machines, X-ray generators and other high voltage electrical equipment, water purification and bleaching . Ozone is the most abundant oxidant in the photochemical smog . The lung cell injury induced by ozone involves a complex biochemical mechanism which is due to free radical generation . Moderate exposure produces upper respiratory tract symptoms and eye irritation, severe acute exposure results in pulmonary oedema . Measurements of atmospheric ozone concentrations in Croatia began at the end of the 19th century; continuous monitoring has been carried out since 1975. Sci Total Environ, 1994 Aug 15, 153(1-2), 85 - 96 The use of epidemiological concepts and techniques to discern factors associated with the nitrate concentration of well water on swine farms in the USA; Bruning-Fann C et al.; This epidemiological study investigates the relationship between various factors associated with swine farms and the nitrate concentration of well water in the USA . Through a random sampling procedure, 605 swine farms located in 18 states were selected for inclusion in this study . A total of 631 well water samples were collected from these farms and tested for a variety of elements and compounds . The concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, ammonia, fluoride, bromide and lithium were determined by an ion chromatograph while an inductively coupled argon plasma emission spectrophotometer was used to determine the concentrations of calcium, magnesium, barium, zinc, iron and phosphate . Data concerning various farm factors were gathered via a personally administered questionnaire . The data were examined using both multiple linear regression and logistic regression . Results indicate that 53.6% (338/631) of the wells contained detectable levels of nitrate, 11.7% (74/631) had nitrate levels exceeding 45 ppm and 4.3% (27/631) exceeded 100 ppm . Logistic models demonstrated an association between nitrate concentrations > 45 ppm, increasing water potassium levels and wells < 100 ft deep . Nitrate levels > 100 ppm were related to increasing water concentrations of potassium, magnesium, barium and zinc, wells 6-10 years old, increasing distance from the study farm to the nearest cattle farm and a greater distance to the nearest waterway located off the study farm . A negative association was seen between nitrate concentrations > 100 ppm, the water level of sulfate, and the use of the same well to supply both the household and livestock . Multiple linear regression models revealed a positive association between increasing nitrate concentration and the water levels of chloride, calcium, zinc and the greater number of miles from the study farm to the nearest farm with cattle or sheep . A negative association was noted between the concentration of well water nitrate and the water levels of sulfate and ammonia, the use of water treatment, the number of miles to the nearest farm with poultry, the employment of water treatment and the use of the same well to supply water to both livestock and the household. N Engl J Med, 1994 Jul 21, 331(3), 161 - 7 A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply; Mac Kenzie WR et al.; BACKGROUND . Early in the spring of 1993 there was a widespread outbreak of acute watery diarrhea among the residents of Milwaukee . METHODS . We investigated the two Milwaukee water-treatment plants, gathered data from clinical laboratories on the results of tests for enteric pathogens, and examined ice made during the time of the outbreak for cryptosporidium oocysts . We surveyed residents with confirmed cryptosporidium infection and a sample of those with acute watery diarrhea consistent with cryptosporidium infection . To estimate the magnitude of the outbreak, we also conducted a survey using randomly selected telephone numbers in Milwaukee and four surrounding counties . RESULTS . There were marked increases in the turbidity of treated water at the city's southern water-treatment plant from March 23 until April 9, when the plant was shut down . Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in water from ice made in southern Milwaukee during these weeks . The rates of isolation of other enteric pathogens remained stable, but there was more than a 100-fold increase in the rate of isolation of cryptosporidium . The median duration of illness was 9 days (range, 1 to 55) . The median maximal number of stools per day was 12 (range, 1 to 90) . Among 285 people surveyed who had laboratory-confirmed cryptosporidiosis, the clinical manifestations included watery diarrhea (in 93 percent), abdominal cramps (in 84 percent), fever (in 57 percent), and vomiting (in 48 percent) . We estimate that 403,000 people had watery diarrhea attributable to this outbreak . CONCLUSIONS . This massive outbreak of watery diarrhea was caused by cryptosporidium oocysts that passed through the filtration system of one of the city's water-treatment plants . Water-quality standards and the testing of patients for cryptosporidium were not adequate to detect this outbreak. Indian J Exp Biol, 1994 Jul, 32(7), 443 - 9 Methane utilizing bacteria and their biotechnological applications; Bodrossy L et al.; Methanotroph microorganisms oxidize methane in four steps, producing methanol, formaldehyde, formate intermediers and eventually degrade methane to carbon dioxide and water . It is possible to separate the pathway into four steps in the cell free extract or after partial purification of the various enzymes . The key enzyme is a metalloenzyme, methane monooxygenase (MMO) which catalyses the oxidation of methane to methanol . MMO is also capable of biodegrading exceptionally harmful and stable chlorinated hydrocarbons . Produced by various industrial activities, most chlorinated hydrocarbons are toxic, potential and/or proven carcinogens and their decomposition challenges water treatment technologies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1994 Jun, 149(6), 1407 - 12 Respiratory disorders and atopy in Danish refuse workers; Sigsgaard T et al.; This survey describes respiratory and mucosal symptoms of garbage-handling and recycling workers in Denmark . The study includes 20 paper-sorting workers, eight compost workers, and 44 garbage-handling workers . As a control group, 119 workers from water purification plants of Copenhagen were chosen; workers in our study had a lower mean age and shorter mean employment time than did members of the control group . There was no significant difference in tobacco consumption between the groups . Garbage-handling workers were exposed to a significantly higher mean concentration (SD) of total dust than were water supply workers-0.74 (0.77) mg/m3 compared with 0.42 (0.25) mg/m3 (p < 0.05) . Total count of microorganisms was significantly higher in garbage-handling and composting areas compared with paper-sorting as well as water supply areas 0.46 (0.125) x 10(5), 0.54 (0.77) x 10(5), 4.7 (5.89) x 10(3), and 0.08 (0.04) x 10(3) cfu/m3, respectively (p < 0.05) . This difference could not be explained as an effect of differential growth requirements . Significantly higher amounts of gram-negative bacteria were found in composting and garbage-handling plants than in water-supply plants . In garbage-handling plants only, there were significantly higher amounts of endotoxins than in paper-sorting plants . Significantly higher prevalence of chest tightness (14%), flu-like symptoms (14%), itching eyes (27%), itching nose (14), and sore or itching throat (21%) were found among garbage-handling workers, compared with, respectively, 1, 1, 11 and 0% among water-supply workers . Furthermore, prevalence of nausea and vomiting or diarrhea rose from 2% and 7% among the water-supply workers to 19% and 27% among the garbage workers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) Adv Dent Res, 1994 Jun, 8(1), 5 - 14 Intake and metabolism of fluoride; Whitford GM; The purpose of this paper is to discuss the major factors that determine the body burden of inorganic fluoride . Fluoride intake 25 or more years ago was determined mainly by measurement of the concentration of the ion in the drinking water supply . This is not necessarily true today because of ingestion from fluoride-containing dental products, the "halo effect", the consumption of bottled water, and the use of water purification systems in the home . Therefore, the concentration of fluoride in drinking water may not be a reliable indicator of previous intake . Under most conditions, fluoride is rapidly and extensively absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . The rate of gastric absorption is inversely related to the pH of the gastric contents . Overall absorption is reduced by calcium and certain other cations and by elevated plasma fluoride levels . Fluoride removal from plasma occurs by calcified tissue uptake and urinary excretion . About 99% of the body burden of fluoride is associated with calcified tissues, and most of it is not exchangeable . In general, the clearance of fluoride from plasma by the skeleton is inversely related to the stage of skeletal development . Skeletal uptake, however, can be positive or negative, depending on the level of fluoride intake, hormonal status, and other factors . Dentin fluoride concentrations tend to increase throughout life and appear to be similar to those in bone . Research to determine whether dentin is a reliable biomarker for the body burden of fluoride is recommended . The renal clearance of fluoride is high compared with other halogens . It is directly related to urinary pH . Factors that acidify the urine increase the retention of fluoride and vice versa . The renal clearance of fluoride decreases and tissue levels increase when the glomerular filtration rate is depressed on a chronic basis. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi, 1994 May, 19(5), 283 - 4, 319 {An orthogonal method for comparing extracting techniques of licorice root extract}; Huang WA et al.; A L9(3(4)) form developed by the orthogonal method was used to study the size, extraction solvent and extraction frequency of licorice root extract, and taking the recovery of glycyrrhizic acid as the criteria, a comparison was made on the different ways of extracting the herb . The result showed the glycyrrhizic acid could be recovered over 10% (about 7% higher than that from water treatment) when the herb was cut into pieces and then extracted by fluxing for 3 times with 60% alcohol containing 0.3% ammonia. Mutat Res, 1994 Apr, 312(2), 187 - 91 No significant increase in sister-chromatid exchanges in cultured blood lymphocytes from workers in a large oil refinery; Khalil AM et al.; In order to assess the potential genotoxic effects of occupational exposure to petrochemicals, the incidence of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCE) in cultured lymphocytes was studied . Blood samples were taken from 233 individuals (184 exposed and 49 worksite controls) in an oil refinery and from 47 community control persons . The data showed a non-significant elevation of SCE frequency in occupationally exposed workers when compared to non-exposed individuals . The mean SCE frequency per cell ranged from 7.55 +/- 0.55 in blood of lube oil blending and canning (LOBC) workers to 9.13 +/- 0.71 in catalytic cracking and water treatment (CCWT) workers . The control values were 6.2 +/- 0.67 and 7.21 +/- 0.45 in the community and worksite individuals, respectively . Furthermore, the SCE frequencies were influenced neither by age nor by smoking. J Biotechnol, 1994 Mar 31, 33(2), 123 - 33 The photocatalytic production of organic-free water for molecular biological and pharmaceutical applications; Cooper G et al.; The inability of conventional water-purification systems to meet the ultra-high purity needs of molecular biology and biopharmaceuticals reliably was attributed to their almost exclusive utilization of phase-transfer technologies . Water quality may unpredictably degrade when confronted by microorganism blooms or altered feed water characteristics . Photocatalytic point-of-use water-purification systems fed by deionized water were demonstrated to meet the most stringent water-purity needs of the molecular biologist . The reliability of the photocatalytic water-purification technology was attributed to its ability to destroy organic contaminants rather than just effect their phase transfer . Photocatalytically produced water was shown to be free of detectable microorganisms, DNA, endotoxins and RNAses . It is suitable for immunological studies involving tissue and other cell cultures because of its lack of detectable endotoxins . Because DNA was also undetectable, it is suitable for DNA and endotoxin zero-standards as well as pharmaceutical formulation . The photocatalytic water is a reliable substitute for diethyl pyrocarbonate-treated water used in RNA work, compatible with PCR and sufficiently free from other contaminants to be useful for most biochemical and enzymatic assays. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 1994 Mar, 13(2-3), 377 - 86 Aspergilli and lignocellulosics: enzymology and biotechnological applications; Duarte JC et al.; Aspergilli are versatile ascomycetes that are able to transform at a rapid rate a wide spectrum of lignin-related aromatic compounds . While it is clear that these fungi can degrade phenolic and polysaccharide components from lignocellulosic material, the status regarding degradation of high-molecular mass lignins is controversial . This review compiles data from the literature as well as that from the authors' laboratory with the aim of clarifying this point . The main body of evidence points towards the inability of aspergilli alone to degrade lignin free of low-molecular mass contaminants . Nevertheless, the ability of this genus to efficiently degrade hemicelluloses makes it an essential participant in the complex microbial system necessary for wood decay under natural conditions . Aspergilli are known to overproduce high levels of hemicellulolytic enzymes . Out of the large array of these enzymes that act in concert to degrade lignocellulosic material, only endoxylanases of aspergilli are described in so far as these are the main activities required for enzyme-aided bleaching . The biochemical features of the endoxylanases from Aspergillus niger are briefly described as these serve to illustrate how a complex family of isozymes is necessary to deal with the structural and chemical heterogeneity of xylans . Emphasis is placed on the biotechnological applications of lignocellulosic materials transformed by aspergilli . The key application areas are biopulping and biobleaching where a reduction in the use of environmentally harmful chemicals traditionally used in the pulp and paper industry is envisaged . Waste water treatment represents another vast application area where aspergilli have been shown to be effective not only in colour removal but also in the bioconversion of potentially noxious substances into useful bioproducts. Optom Vis Sci, 1994 Feb, 71(2), 109 - 14 Effect of corneal edema upon the smoothness of excimer laser ablation; Fields CR et al.; We studied the effect of corneal hydration upon ablation rate in excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) . This variable may alter the subepithelial smoothness and the resulting clarity of the result . The eyes of freshly slaughtered pigs (N = 5) and the eyes of Dutch-belted rabbits (N = 4) (in vivo) were de-epithelialized and central ablation zones 3.0 to 4.5 mm in diameter were produced in the subepithelial corneal layers using a 193 nm argon fluoride (ArF) ophthalmic excimer laser . Ablation was performed immediately or after a 15-min incubation period in distilled water as a means of inducing corneal edema . Smoothness was evaluated using specular reflection microscopy and showed the water-treated surface to be increasingly less regular than the nonwater-treated samples . Water treatment may affect the final outcome of the PRK procedure and indicates the need to monitor the preoperative cornea for the development of any edema, especially after the epithelium is removed. J Electron Microsc (Tokyo), 1994 Feb, 43(1), 20 - 4 Changes in the distribution of F-actin in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe by arresting growth in distilled water: correlative studies with fluorescence and electron microscopy; Kanbe T et al.; Freeze-substitution electron microscopy of Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells starved in distilled water was conducted to define ultrastructural counterparts of actin visualized by fluorescence microscopy using rhodamine-conjugated phalloidin (Rh-ph) . Starvation in distilled water caused remarkable changes in actin distribution and ultrastructural changes in S . pombe . Fluorescence microscopy of the starved cells showed that the dots of actin at the growing ends became thick actin cables via an enlarged patched form of actin . These changes were reversible, and growth-arrested cells resumed their original pattern of actin distribution upon return to growth medium . Electron microscopy of starved cells showed bundles of thin filaments and clusters of filamentous balls in the cytoplasm, which corresponded to the actin cables and enlarged actin dots, respectively, as seen by fluorescence microscopy . Vesicles polarized at the growing cell ends were dispersed in the cytoplasm by distilled water treatment, indicating that actin organization plays a role in directing vesicle location. Poult Sci, 1994 Jan, 73(1), 194 - 201 Effects of ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate on adrenocortical activation and fear-related behavior in broiler chickens; Satterlee DG et al.; The effects of supplemental ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (APP) on adrenocortical function and underlying fearfulness in broiler chickens were assessed in a number of test situations . Chicks pretreated for a minimum of 24 h with APP (1,000 ppm equivalents of L-ascorbic acid) in their drinking water or with no APP (tap water controls; CON) had blood samples taken immediately following water treatment and again after exposure to a capture and cooping stressor for 10 min . First, although the cooping stressor markedly increased plasma corticosterone concentrations, pretreatment with APP failed to attenuate this adrenocortical response . Second, APP-treated chicks showed less freezing and vocalized sooner in an open field (novel environment) than did controls . They also showed nonsignificant tendencies toward accelerated and enhanced ambulation . Third, supplementation with APP reduced the duration of the birds' tonic immobility fear reactions . Collectively, these behavioral effects are indicative of dampened fear . The apparent reduction of nonspecific, underlying fearfulness by APP treatment may have important implications for poultry welfare and performance. Poult Sci, 1994 Jan, 73(1), 106 - 12 Evidence against the induction of immunological tolerance by feeding antigens to chickens; Miller CC et al.; A series of studies was conducted to determine whether oral tolerance shown to be inducible in rodents can be induced in chickens . A preliminary study was performed with male juvenile Sprague-Dawley rats to ascertain the ability of ELISA to detect oral tolerance induction . Two groups of six rats were provided water with or without 2 mg/mL BSA for 14 consecutive d to induce tolerance . Eight days following water treatment, the rats were challenged i.m . with 1 mg BSA . Serum collected from the rats 20 d later showed decreased (P < .01) anti-BSA ELISA titers in the group given BSA in the water relative to those given ordinary water . Three experiments were conducted to determine whether oral tolerance could be induced in chickens . Birds were given daily oral doses of 25 mg BSA for 14 d (Experiment 1), or fed 5% casein in their diet for 14 d (Experiment 2), or 1 mL of a 50% suspension of SRBC for 10 d (Experiment 3) . All birds were challenged with the same antigen after oral dosing . Birds orally dosed with BSA prior to challenge with BSA had titers similar to birds not fed BSA prior to challenge with BSA . When chickens were fed casein (P < .05) or orally gavaged with SRBC (P < .1), titers were enhanced . These observations suggest that feeding antigens prior to injection with the same antigen leads to an enhanced humoral immune response in birds and not tolerance. Vet Med (Praha), 1994, 39(11), 677 - 86 {Study of the efficacy of sewage treatment systems for fluid waste on pig farms in Slovakia}; Venglovsky J et al.; Bacteriological, helminthological and physico-chemical examinations were carried out to investigate the technological procedure in three water treatment plants treating slurry from large-capacity pig farms (Kosicka Polianka, Spisske Vlachy, Vel'ky Dur) . Our investigations were focused on the testing of effectiveness of mechanical, chemical and biological treatment system most frequently used in Slovakia . Our investigations revealed that water-treatment plants, operating on pig farms, fulfil only the supplies management requirements concerning the treated water, discharged into the recipient . From the hygienic viewpoint further processing or utilization of the solid fraction remains unsolved . This fraction contains considerable concentrations of bacteria and parasitic germs (Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis, Isospora sp., Eimeria sp.) most of which exhibit high tenacity in the environment . It is recommended to process this solid fraction by composting before it is applied as a manure . However, the measured values did not exceed the reference hygienic limits . The technological stage of chemical treatment, which follows after the separation and utilizes some coagulants (aluminium sulphate, ferrous sulphate), can increase the chemical load of water stripped of crude organic pollutants, by some undesirable chemical elements. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 1994, 140, 1 - 164 National standards and guidelines for pesticides in water, sediment, and aquatic organisms: application to water-quality assessments; Nowell LH et al.; National standards and guidelines for pesticides can be useful tools in water-quality assessment for evaluating potential human health or ecological effects of measured pesticide residues in water, bed sediment, or aquatic organisms . However, valid use of a given standard or guideline requires an understanding of its technical basis and underlying assumptions . Each type of standard or guideline is specific for one sampling medium (water, bed sediment, and fish and shellfish tissue) and is aimed at protection of one or more beneficial uses of the hydrologic system (drinking water, fish and shellfish consumption, aquatic organisms, and wildlife) . These characteristics can be used to identify which standards and guidelines are appropriate for comparison with measured pesticide concentrations in environmental samples from a given hydrologic system . A review of standards and guidelines can be restricted to the applicable sampling medium . Then, the beneficial uses of the hydrologic system need to be identified and the measured pesticide concentrations compared with standards and guidelines for all beneficial uses that apply to that system . Several key factors that must be considered when applying this general process to water-quality assessment are summarized below . Two precautions need to be considered regarding sampling media: 1 . Standards and guidelines for water distinguish between finished drinking water (potable water, often treated) and ambient surface water . If standards and guidelines for drinking water (EPA primary drinking-water regulations and drinking-water health advisories) are applied to measured pesticide concentrations in ambient water samples, the effects of water treatment (such as filtration) need to be considered . 2 . Standards and guidelines for fish and shellfish tissue distinguish between edible fish and shellfish tissue and whole fish tissue . Comparison of pesticide concentrations in whole fish tissue with standards or guidelines for edible fish and shellfish tissue is appropriate only as a screening procedure to determine whether additional sampling and analysis for contaminants in edible fish fillets are warranted . For some sampling media (water, fish and shellfish tissues), both standards and guidelines may exist for a given pesticide . Standards and guidelines may differ in their technical bases and in the implications or consequences of finding measured concentrations in exceedance of the standard or guideline value . Therefore, comparison of measured pesticide concentrations with both standards and guidelines is useful because each provides different information about the hydrologic system.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS) Undersea Hyperb Med, 1993 Dec, 20(4), 309 - 20 Failure to reduce body water loss in cold-water immersion by glycerol ingestion; Arnall DA et al.; The efficacy of ingesting an aqueous glycerol solution to enhance body water retention during prolonged cold-water dives was evaluated . Nine Naval Special Warfare divers performed a 3-h dive in 13 degrees C water . Divers were assigned to either a water-treatment group (WT) or a glycerol-treatment (GT) group . WT ingested 30 ml water/kg lean body mass (LBM) . GT ingested a solution consisting of 1.2 ml glycerol/kg LBM and 30 ml water/kg LBM . Blood was drawn at prehydration, 90 min after hydration, and 20 min after the 3-h dive for serum glycerol, glucose, free fatty acids, lactate, and electrolyte determinations . Fluid intake and output was recorded and urine analyzed for osmolality, electrolytes, and specific gravity . Serum glycerol values in GT were 200 times greater at posthydration than prehydration and 100 times greater at postdive than at prehydration . Urine output, total body weight loss, and non-urine weight loss during posthydration and dive sampling periods were not significantly different between treatment groups . Hyperhydration with an aqueous glycerol solution of 1.2 ml glycerol/kg LBM seems ineffective in significantly reducing body water loss in divers during prolonged cold-water immersion. Mil Med, 1993 Dec, 158(12), 794 - 7 An iodine load from water-purification tablets alters thyroid function in humans; Georgitis WJ et al.; Tablets containing tetraglycine hydroperiodide are used to purify small quantities of water for drinking . Because short-term administration of stable iodide can alter thyroid function in normal adults, we evaluated the effects of these tablets on thyroid function during a military field training exercise . Fourteen normal volunteers participated in the study . After an adjustment period of 2 weeks to the field environment, half of the subjects received four dissolved water-purification tablets (32 mg free iodine) daily for 7 consecutive days while the other half served as controls . At the end of the study the treatment group showed reductions in the mean serum levels of thyroxine (14%) and total triiodothyronine (15%) and significant increments in basal thyrotropin (TSH) (122%) and the TSH response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (49%) compared to baseline values . The basal TSH level rose above the normal range in two subjects . No significant changes in any parameter of thyroid function were observed in the control subjects . One week of daily exposure to the iodine load from four tetraglycine hydroperiodide water-purification tablets causes mild impairment of thyroid function in humans. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 Nov, 59(11), 3674 - 80 Comparison of Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris cyst inactivation by ozone; Finch GR et al.; Inactivation of Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris cysts was compared by using an ozone demand-free 0.05 M phosphate buffer in bench-scale batch reactors at 22 degrees C . Ozone was added to each trial from a concentrated stock solution for contact times of 2 and 5 min . The viability of the control and treated cysts was evaluated by using the C3H/HeN mouse and Mongolian gerbil models for G . muris and G . lamblia, respectively . The resistance of G . lamblia to ozone was not significantly different from that of G . muris under the study conditions, contrary to previously reported data that suggested G . lamblia was significantly more sensitive to ozone than G . muris was . The simple Ct value for 2 log unit inactivation of G . lamblia was 2.4 times higher than the Ct value recommended by the Surface Water Treatment Rule. Risk Anal, 1993 Oct, 13(5), 545 - 52 Risk assessment of virus in drinking water; Haas CN et al.; The reevaluation of drinking water treatment practices in a desire to minimize the formation of disinfection byproducts while assuring minimum levels of public health protection against infectious organisms has caused it to become necessary to consider the problem of estimation of risks posed from exposure to low levels of microorganisms, such as virus or protozoans, found in treated drinking water . This paper outlines a methodology based on risk assessment principles to approach the problem . The methodology is validated by comparison with results obtained in a prospective epidemiological study . It is feasible to produce both point and interval estimates of infection, illness and perhaps mortality by this methodology . Areas of uncertainty which require future data are indicated. Immun Infekt, 1993 Oct, 21(5), 122 - 5 {Occurrence and detection of viruses in drinking water}; Tougianidou D et al.; Viruses can pass disinfection steps of water treatment plants without being inactivated . Investigations during the last 15 years revealed repeatedly the presence of enteric viruses in finished water meeting standards for coliform bacteria . Methods for the detection of viruses in water which implicate their growth on specific cell cultures are very time consuming and do not cover many viral species . Molecular detection methods including PCR techniques may help in the development of alternate methods for virus detection particularly in drinking water which usually does not contain PCR inhibiting factors. West Afr J Med, 1993 Oct-Dec, 12(4), 185 - 8 Ethnographic study on childhood diarrhoeal diseases in a rural Nigerian community; Odujinrin OM et al.; Mothers in thirty households in a rural Nigerian community were subjected to ethnographic studies on food handling practices as they relate to diarrhoeal diseases in children . The study had a first phase of three open-ended unstructured interviews each lasting about 2 hours and a second phase of direct observations on food handling practices during preparation, administration and storage by mothers . Results indicated that as many as 20 (66.7%) of the mothers identified diarrhoea as a common cause of childhood diseases . Diarrhoea due to food contamination was recognized by as many as 18 (60.0%) respondents . Four important food handling practices relating to water treatment, handwashing before preparation and feeding, administration and storage were recognized in the first phase but the claimed practices in the first phase differed significantly from the observed practices in the second phase (p < 0.025) . Many (32.1%) mothers had contaminating food handling behaviours . The low literacy level, poverty and lack of good personal hygiene among the studies population were the most likely causes of the behaviours observed. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 Aug, 59(8), 2418 - 24 Clostridium perfringens and somatic coliphages as indicators of the efficiency of drinking water treatment for viruses and protozoan cysts; Payment P et al.; To find the most suitable indicator of viral and parasitic contamination of drinking water, large-volume samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of pathogens (cultivable human enteric viruses, Giardia lamblia cysts, and Cryptosporidium oocysts) and potential indicators (somatic and male-specific coliphages, Clostridium perfringens) . The samples were obtained from three water treatment plants by using conventional or better treatments (ozonation, biological filtration) . All samples of river water contained the microorganisms sought, and only C . perfringens counts were correlated with human enteric viruses, cysts, or oocysts . For settled and filtered water samples, all indicators were statistically correlated with human enteric viruses but not with cysts or oocysts . By using multiple regression, the somatic coliphage counts were the only explanatory variable for the human enteric virus counts in settled water, while in filtered water samples it was C . perfringens counts . Finished water samples of 1,000 liters each were free of all microorganisms, except for a single sample that contained low levels of cysts and oocysts of undetermined viability . Three of nine finished water samples of 20,000 liters each revealed residual levels of somatic coliphages at 0.03, 0.10, and 0.26 per 100 liters . Measured virus removal was more than 4 to 5 log10, and cyst removal was more than 4 log10 . Coliphage and C . perfringens counts suggested that the total removal and inactivation was more than 7 log10 viable microorganisms . C . perfringens counts appear to be the most suitable indicator for the inactivation and removal of viruses in drinking water treatment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) J Chromatogr, 1993 Jul 23, 643(1-2), 145 - 61 Pollutants in drinking water and waste water; Schroder HF; Extracts of drinking water and effluents from municipal and industrial sewage treatment plants were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with ultraviolet and/or mass spectrometric detection . After column chromatography or flow-injection analysis bypassing the analytical column, ionization was performed by a thermospray interface . Identification of the pollutants was carried out by tandem mass spectrometry, generating daughter-ion spectra by collision-induced dissociation . Most pollutants in drinking water and in the effluents of waste water treatment plants are surface-active compounds of anthropogenic origin or their biochemical degradation products . Difficulties encountered during separation, detection and identification are presented and discussed and techniques for solving these problems are proposed. Health Phys, 1993 Jul, 65(1), 25 - 32 Environmental monitoring and dose assessment following the December 1991 K-reactor aqueous tritium release; Hamby DM et al.; Between 22 December and 25 December 1991, approximately 570 L of tritiated water was released from the K Reactor at the Savannah River Site . Analyses of river flow rates and measured tritium concentrations showed that approximately 210 TBq of tritium had been released from the reactor and was being transported down the Savannah River . Elevated tritium concentrations in the Savannah River were first detected on 26 December 1991 . The maximum measured tritium concentration at Highway 301 (a major sampling point 37 km downstream of the Savannah River Site) was 2.5 Bq mL-1 . A hypothetical maximum individual located at Highway 301 would have received a drinking water dose of approximately 0.35 microSv, less than 1% of the Environmental Protection Agency's 40 microSv y-1 drinking water standard . Concentrations at the intake canals to two water treatment facilities, approximately 160 km downstream, began to rise above normal on 28 December . The population dose to users of the downstream domestic water supplies and consumers of Savannah River biota was estimated to be 4.7 x 10(-3) person-Sv. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 1993 Jul, 11(1-3), 153 - 8 Microbial purification technique of mineral dressing plants reject waters; Ghiani M et al.; Earlier investigations on laboratory and pilot plant scale have shown the resort to microorganisms to be a practicable approach to the problem of purifying mineral dressing plant reject waters from residual flotation reagents and/or metal ions . In spite of the proven effectiveness of this method, one major drawback, namely the pathogenicity of some microorganisms, has so far hampered its application on a commercial scale . A research programme, aimed at developing a microbial reject water purification technique utilizing non-pathogenic strains was thus drawn up and is currently being implemented . Strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, which are not harmful to human health, some of them being commonly found in the human intestine, have been successfully tested for removing alkylsulphates, alkylamines and fatty acids from solutions simulating flotation plant tailings waters . Removals as high as 90% in less than 48 h can be easily achieved with no nutrient requirements, since in most cases the flotation reagent residue to be removed is metabolized by the microorganisms themselves. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 May, 59(5), 1410 - 5 Distribution of bacteria within operating laboratory water purification systems; McFeters GA et al.; Experiments were conducted to measure communities of bacteria within operating ultrapure water treatment systems intended for laboratory use . Samples from various locations within Milli-Q Plus and Milli-Q UV Plus systems were analyzed for populations of planktonic bacteria at weekly intervals over 3 months of operation . Relatively high initial densities of planktonic bacteria (10(2) to 10(3) bacteria per ml) were seen within both units when they were challenged with source water of poor quality, although the product water continued to be acceptable with regard to bacterial numbers, resistivity, and endotoxin concentration . Under more normal operating conditions, significant differences were seen in planktonic populations throughout the systems with excellent product water quality . A great deal of variability was observed in biofilm populations analyzed from various system surfaces after 3 months of operation . The concentrations of planktonic bacteria and biofilm densities were much lower in the unit containing a UV lamp . These findings suggest that a range of microenvironmental conditions exist within purified water systems, leading to variable populations of bacteria . However, product water of excellent quality was obtained despite the bacterial communities. J Clin Periodontol, 1993 May, 20(5), 314 - 7 The effect of oral irrigation with a magnetic water treatment device on plaque and calculus; Watt DL et al.; Calculus formation on tooth surfaces is analogous to the formation of lime and scale deposits in plumbing . Magnetic water devices have been shown to significantly reduce scale deposits in industry; therefore an oral irrigator with a magnetic water device may have a similar effect on calculus . To test this hypothesis, a double-blind clinical study was established using 64 irrigators, 30 of which had their magnetic devices removed . 54 patients with heavy supragingival calculus were given irrigators at random after prophylaxis . Instructions were given to irrigate twice a day, particularly the lower 6 anterior teeth . The patients were also told not to floss these 6 teeth which were to be the study teeth . They were examined after 3 months and measurements were taken of the accretions adhering to the study teeth . No attempt was made to determine whether the adhering material was hard or soft so it must be assumed that at least some of the measured material was also plaque . The measurements of the group using an irrigator with a magnetic device showed a 44% greater reduction in calculus volume (p < 0.0005) and a 42% greater reduction in area (p < 0.0001) over the group using an unmagnetized irrigator . There appears to be a statistically significant difference in supragingival accretion volumes between conventional irrigation and using an irrigator with a magnetic water treatment device. J Toxicol Environ Health, 1993 May, 39(1), 121 - 41 Aquatic biomonitoring of reclaimed water for potable use: the San Diego Health Effects Study; de Peyster A et al.; Highly treated reclaimed wastewater was evaluated as a possible supplement to raw water sources required to meet San Diego's growing need for potable water . Biomonitoring experiments employing fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were used to compare reclaimed water with the city's current raw water supply . Juvenile fish were exposed in flow-through aquaria in field laboratories located at the reclamation plant (AQUA II) and at a municipal potable water treatment facility (Miramar) . Biomonitoring measurements were survival and growth, swimming performance, and trace amounts of 68 base/neutral/acid extractable organics, 27 pesticides, and 27 inorganic chemicals found in fish tissues after exposure . Biomonitoring revealed differences in survival, growth, and swimming performance only after 90- and 180-d exposure . Reclaimed water and raw water were not readily distinguishable in 28-d chemical bioaccumulation tests in terms of organic chemical contaminants in fish tissue except for pesticide levels, which tended to be higher in raw water . Similar inorganic species were found in samples from both waters, although there was greater evidence of bioaccumulation of certain contaminants from raw water . Based on biomonitoring parameters included in these experiments, the use of reclaimed water to supplement raw water supplies would appear to pose no major public health threats . The results of these studies will be combined with additional health effects information before final conclusions are reached about the suitability of reclaimed water for human consumption. Nippon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi, 1993 Mar, 45(3), 220 - 6 {A quality control for the culture system using endotoxin assays in human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer}; Nagata Y et al.; The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of endotoxin on human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfers (IVF-ET) and to evaluate a quality control system for a culture medium using endotoxin assays . Before the final water purification (in an ultra-pure water system with a depyrogen filter) of the medium, the sources of water were pre-purified as follows; (I) distillation-->deionization x 2, (II) distillation-->ultra-pure water system or (III) reverse osmosis system . The limulus amebocyte lysate gelation tests (sensitivities of 0.03 and 0.25EU/ml) were used to detect endotoxin in the medium and in pre-purified water (pre-water) . No pregnancies occurred in the endotoxin-positive medium (endotoxin > or = 0.03EU/ml) . The endotoxin-negative medium resulted in a 33.3% pregnancy rate and 13.4% implantation rate . No statistical differences in the implantation rate were found among these methods of pre-purification (I: 12.5%, II: 13.4% and III: 20.0%) . Endotoxin was detected in all the pre-water between 0.25 and 4.0EU/ml . The clinical pregnancy rate (36.6%) and the implantation rate (16.9%) in pre-water of endotoxin < 0.25EU/ml were significantly higher than those (10.5% and 5.5%) in pre-water of endotoxin > or = 0.25EU/ml (p < 0.05) . We confirmed that a very low concentration of endotoxin disturbed a human embryo implantation . Endotoxin assays, not only in the media, but also in pre-water before final purification are useful as a quality control for the IVF-ET program. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1993 Mar, 193(6), 557 - 62 Isolation of Arcobacter butzleri from a drinking water reservoir in eastern Germany; Jacob J et al.; Microaerophilic "campylobacter-like organisms" (CLO) were isolated from a drinking water reservoir in Germany during a period of some months . The strains were characterized by biotyping (API Campy), serotyping and SDS-Disc-gelelectrophoresis as Arcobacter butzleri . Now this facultative humanpathogen species was first described in Germany . With respect to the drinking water treatment, the hygienic importance of the findings is given. Biull Eksp Biol Med, 1993 Feb, 115(2), 137 - 8 {Hypertensive activity of blood plasma of WKY rats with a calcium deficiency in drinking water}; Churina SK et al.; The effects of low (8.0 mg/l) and normal (80 mg/l) Ca2+ water diets on systolic blood pressure (SBP) and hypertensive plasma activity were studied . At the end of the 16-week experimental period SBP in the low-Ca2+ group of animals was higher than in the control group after the water treatment: 161 sigma 9 and 120 +/- 4 mm Hg respectively . Significant hypertensive plasma activity of the Ca(2+)-deficient rats was noted in all cases . WKY plasma of the rats of normal-Ca2+ group had no significant effect on SBP . Water correction according to the physiologically recommended levels of calcium can prevent the development of arterial hypertension and occurrence of hypertensive plasma activity. Microbios, 1993, 73(296), 215 - 27 Identification and growth characteristics of pink pigmented oxidative bacteria, Methylobacterium mesophilicum and biovars isolated from chlorinated and raw water supplies; O'Brien JR et al.; Pink pigmented bacteria were isolated from a blood bank water purification unit, a municipal town water supply (tap water), and an island (untreated) ground water source . A total of thirteen strains including two reference strains of pink pigmented bacteria were compared in a numerical phenotypic study using 119 binary characters . Three clusters were derived, one major cluster of eleven strains was subdivided into two sub-clusters on the basis of methanol utilization . Five strains were facultative methylotrophs and were classified as Methylobacterium mesophilicum biovar 1 . The other six strains did not utilize methanol, but on the basis of high phenotypic similarity of 83.6% were classified as M . mesophilicum biovar 2 . The single reference strain comprising cluster 2 Pseudomonas extorquens NCIB 9399 was assigned to the genus Methylobacterium and classified as M . extorquens . Cluster 3 was the single reference strain Rhizobium CB 376. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 327 - 33 Sanitary implications associated with the use of eutrophic freshwater; Volterra L; This review presents the problem of eutrophication of lakes whose waters are used also for potable use . The indirect negative impact of algal blooms as well as the direct consequences of the overgrowth of toxic Cyanophyta are considered . Problems for water treatment plants processing eutrophic raw water are exposed . Basic treatment will not easily remove algae or their by-products and increased use of chlorine will give rise to high levels of chlorinated by-products such as THM . Possible alternatives and improvements are suggested for the treatment of poor quality raw water to obtain high quality drinking water. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 305 - 11 Some aspects related to the presence of aluminium in waters; Giordano R et al.; Aluminium is present in very small amounts in living organisms but it is abundant in the environment, where it exists in forms with low availability to man and most biological species . Despite its abundance in the earth's crust only a small amount of aluminium is present in waters, with concentrations varying from a few tens to some hundreds of micrograms per liter . High levels of aluminium in drinking water are in most cases due either to acid precipitation or water treatment with aluminium salts . The presence of aluminium in dialysis fluids has been recognized as the major reason for development of aluminium toxicity in patients with renal failure . In subjects with normal renal function, high concentrations of this element in drinking water (> 80 micrograms/l) have been related to an elevated incidence of Alzheimer's disease, even though the real contribution of the element in the development of the disease has not yet been clarified. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 253 - 62 The groundwater pollution in Lombardy (north Italy) caused by organo-halogenated compounds; Berbenni P et al.; This paper deals with the phenomenon of the presence of organo-halogenated compounds in groundwaters of the Lombardy Region (North Italy) . The regionwide study evidentiated the magnitude of the phenomenon, since these compounds are employed in all productive and household activities . The main cause of groundwater contamination is the infiltration of industrial wastewater: in the Province of Mantova, for example, organic chlorinated solvents have their origin in the NaOCl wastewater treatment for ammonia removal . Organic alogenated compounds in waters intended for human consumption in Lombardy are present in 510 wells over 92 townships, affecting a population of 1,934,133 equivalent to 20% of the total resident population (1991 data) . Maximum observed concentrations are related to trielin and tetrachloroethilene . Water treatment was achieved through aeration (stripping) and activated carbon or resin adsorption; in a few instances, also hydraulic interventions were implemented. Sci Total Environ, 1993, Suppl Pt 1, 787 - 90 The use of in vitro fertilization in the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay in Xenopus (FETAX) and its applications to ecotoxicology; Vismara C et al.; The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay in Xenopus (FETAX) is a powerful assay for the presence of developmental toxicants in the environment that uses Xenopus embryos . We have applied the test to evaluate a water purification system by testing and comparing the input and the output waters. Klin Med (Mosk), 1993 Jan, 71(1), 33 - 6 {Some aspects of current treatment of patients with terminal chronic renal insufficiency}; Burtsev VI et al.; Two groups of patients with terminal chronic renal failure (TCRF) treated from 1970 to 1979 (group 1) and in 1980-1989 (group 2) have been compared in respect to treatment results . All the patients underwent programmed hemodialysis performed on different equipment and according to different regimens . The results of group 2 appeared better: the lethality decreased by 18%, mean survival from 6 months to 4.5 years, up to half of the patients were able to receive hemodialysis procedures outpatiently, 30% of the patients were prepared to receive a renal transplant . The above positive shifts were achieved due to utilization of updated equipment, improved water purification, 3-stage technique of hemodialysis, antianemic drug eprex and vanalpha against osteodystrophy. Carcinogenesis, 1992 Dec, 13(12), 2277 - 80 Influence of fruit and vegetable juices on the endogenous formation of N-nitrosoproline and N-nitrosothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid in humans on controlled diets; Helser MA et al.; Water, green pepper, pineapple, tomato, strawberry, carrot, and celery juices were made 46 mg/100 ml in ascorbic acid by the addition of distilled water or ascorbate . The ability of each juice to inhibit endogenous formation of N-nitrosoamino acids (NAA) in humans was determined in controlled experiments . Sixteen men consumed a standard diet low in nitrate and ascorbic acid for 18 consecutive days . Nitrate (5.24 mmol) and L-proline (4.35 mmol) were given orally on days 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 and 18 . On days 3 and 18, L-proline was immediately followed by 100 ml distilled water (positive control) . On days 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17, L-proline was immediately followed by 100 ml juice or 46 mg ascorbate in 100 ml distilled water (treatment) . Only diet was given in between dosing days to ensure baseline levels of NAA excretion . Urine was collected for 24 h following treatments and analyzed for NAA . Green pepper, pineapple, tomato, strawberry and carrot treatments significantly inhibited N-nitrosoproline (NPRO) formation relative to the positive control . Also, green pepper, pineapple and tomato juices significantly inhibited NPRO formation relative to ascorbic acid alone . Green pepper significantly inhibited N-nitrosothiazolidine-carboxylic acid formation relative to ascorbic acid alone . These data demonstrate that green pepper, tomato, pineapple, strawberry and carrot juice have greater ability to inhibit endogenous nitrosation than would be expected based solely on their ascorbate content. J Toxicol Environ Health, 1992 Dec, 37(4), 483 - 94 Mutagens in urine sampled repetitively from municipal refuse incinerator workers and water treatment workers; Ma XF et al.; Municipal refuse incinerator workers may be exposed to mutagenic compounds from combustion gases and particulates during plant operation, maintenance, and ash removal procedures . The frequency of mutagens was measured by the Ames assay in 3 urine samples collected from each of 37 workers in 4 refuse incinerators and 35 (control) workers from 8 water treatment plants during June-August 1990 . When comparing the first urine samples contributed by workers in each cohort, incinerator workers had a significantly (p < .05) increased risk of both direct-acting mutagens and promutagens (8/37 or 22% for each mutagen type) compared with water treatment workers (2/35 or 6% for each mutagen type) . Smoking within 24 h before urine sampling was not a confounder of these results . Interestingly, there was no significant (p > .05) difference for risk of urinary mutagens or promutagens between the two cohorts when comparing, respectively, the second and third urine samples from each cohort . The repeatability of demonstrating urinary mutagens in individual incinerator workers was poor, suggesting that their exposure was highly variable and/or that these workers modified their exposure (e.g., wore masks) as a consequence of being studied . Factors that influence production of mutagenic compounds during refuse incineration and subsequent worker exposure are discussed. Eur J Med, 1992 Dec, 1(8), 482 - 4 Level-dependent inhibitory effect of hyperaluminaemia on parathyroid hormone secretion in patients with end-stage renal failure; Fernandez E et al.; OBJECTIVES: Serum aluminium and parathyroid hormone levels were measured in chronic dialysis patients at discovery of accidental exposure to high dialysate aluminium levels and followed after adequate water purification . PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-nine patients with chronic renal failure on maintenance haemodialysis were accidently exposed to dialysate aluminium levels of 65 micrograms/L (recommended Food and Drug Administration values less than 10 micrograms/L) for 18 months . At discovery, oral aluminium was withdrawn and dialysate aluminium levels were corrected to less than 5 micrograms/L . Serum aluminium, parathyroid hormone, calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase levels were determined at discovery and two months and one year after the corrective measures . RESULTS: Mean serum aluminium level was 167.6 +/- 15 micrograms/L at discovery and simultaneous serum parathyroid levels were 7.9 +/- 2.2 pmol/L (normal values 1.1 to 4.6 pmol/L) . Two months after discontinuation of oral aluminium and correction of dialysate aluminium levels to less than 5 micrograms/L, the patients' mean serum aluminium dropped to 49.6 +/- 4.3 micrograms/L and simultaneous serum parathyroid hormone levels rose to 14.6 +/- 3.2-pmol/L (p < 0.001) . Similar levels were maintained at one year . Serum calcium did not change significantly . There was a significant correlation between the drop in serum aluminium and the increase in parathyroid hormone . CONCLUSION: These results confirm animal experiments and show convincingly that aluminium inhibits parathyroid secretion also in humans. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1992 Dec, 24(3), 319 - 27 Simple method to prolong the closed bottle test for the determination of the inherent biodegradability; van Ginkel CG et al.; A method to prolong the closed bottle test up to 200 days is described and validated . This prolonged closed bottle test has been used to determine the biodegradability of "recalcitrant" and toxic organic compounds . The results obtained in the prolonged closed bottle test are in accordance with those mentioned in the literature on biodegradation of organic compounds in waste water purification plants and on the isolation of microorganisms capable of utilizing these compounds as carbon and energy source . Furthermore, this test may prevent discrepancies and unexplainable results obtained in a 28-day test . The test has the potential to be used as an inherent biodegradability test when recognized by the authorities. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Nov, 58(11), 3494 - 500 Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental pressures; Robertson LJ et al.; The survival of various isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under a range of environmental pressures including freezing, desiccation, and water treatment processes and in physical environments commonly associated with oocysts such as feces and various water types was monitored . Oocyst viability was assessed by in vitro excystation and by a viability assay based on the exclusion or inclusion of two fluorogenic vital dyes . Although desiccation was found to be lethal, a small proportion of oocysts were able to withstand exposure to temperatures as low as -22 degrees C . The water treatment processes investigated did not affect the survival of oocysts when pH was corrected . However, contact with lime, ferric sulfate, or alum had a significant impact on oocyst survival if the pH was not corrected . Oocysts demonstrated longevity in all water types investigated, including seawater, and when in contact with feces were considered to develop an enhanced impermeability to small molecules which might increase the robustness of the oocysts when exposed to environmental pressures. Ann Emerg Med, 1992 Nov, 21(11), 1303 - 7 Effects of isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, and polyethylene glycol/industrial methylated spirits in the treatment of acute phenol burns; Hunter DM et al.; STUDY OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of water rinse with those of isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, or ethanol on cutaneous phenol burns . DESIGN: Controlled trial with all animals receiving all treatments applied to different cutaneous phenol burn sites . TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS: Swine weighing 9 to 18 kg . INTERVENTIONS: In phase 1, each burn site was treated with water rinse for zero, one, or five minutes combined with either isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, ethanol, or no other treatment . Biopsies of treatment sites were done at 30 minutes and at 48 hours . In phase 2, a pilot study, the effect of isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, or water treatment on serum phenol levels was noted in animals with 5%, 10%, and 15% body surface area burns . MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: In phase 1, on histological examination of biopsy specimens, significant differences in tissue damage occurred among the groups (P < .05) . Isopropyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits were the most efficacious treatments; the duration of water rinse had no significant effect . In phase 2, the systemic absorption of phenol may be greater with water treatment than with isopropyl alcohol treatment . CONCLUSION: Isopropyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits are equally effective in the amelioration of phenol burns of less than 5% total surface area . The wider availability of isopropyl alcohol makes it potentially the most useful treatment for these small burns . Further studies of its risks are needed. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Sep, 58(9), 3136 - 41 Rates of inactivation of waterborne coliphages by monochloramine; Dee SW et al.; A sophisticated water quality monitoring program was established to evaluate virus removal through Denver's 1-million-gal (ca . 4-million-liter)/day Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant . As a comparison point for the reuse demonstration plant, Denver's main water treatment facility was also monitored for coliphage organisms . Through the routine monitoring of the main plant, it was discovered that coliphage organisms were escaping the water treatment processes . Monochloramine residuals and contact times (CT values) required to achieve 99% inactivation were determined for coliphage organisms entering and leaving this conventional water treatment plant . The coliphage tested in the effluent waters had higher CT values on the average than those of the influent waters . CT values established for some of these coliphages suggest that monochloramine alone is not capable of removing 2 orders of magnitude of these specific organisms in a typical water treatment facility . Electron micrographs revealed one distinct type of phage capable of escaping the water treatment processes and three distinct types of phages in all. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo, 1992 Sep-Oct, 34(5), 459 - 66 {The use of the shell of the cashew nut, Anacardium occidentale, as an alternative molluscacide}; de Souza CP et al.; Bioassays using hexanolic extracts of cashew nut shells, of Anacardium occidentale, collected in Ceara in 1972 (Sample 1) and 1987 (Sample 2) were undertaken with adult snails and egg masses of Biomphalaria glabrata, B . tenagophila and B . straminea both in the laboratory and in the field . Non extracted shells, 18.5 g, sample 1, were also tested with adult snails and egg masses of the three species . The toxicity of extract was tested with fish (Poecilia reticulata) and tadpoles . The lethal concentration, CL90, of sample 1 was from 2.0 to 2.2 ppm for adult snails of the three species . With sample 2, the CL90 was 2.0, 0.5 and 30.0 ppm for B . glabrata adults, newly hatched snails and egg mass respectively . Non extracted shells caused 40-80% mortality of adult snails, 22-35% mortality of embryos and 40-55% reduction of egg production . The hexanolic extract, sample 2, were innocuous for tadpole and fish at 2 ppm . In the field, in pools of still water treatment with 20 ppm of extract, sample 1, caused a 97.1% mortality of B . straminea and 100% mortality of B . glabrata and B . tenagophila . Using Niclosamide, at 3 ppm, 100% mortality of the three species occurred. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Aug, 58(8), 2420 - 5 Relationship between Legionella pneumophila and Acanthamoeba polyphaga: physiological status and susceptibility to chemical inactivation; Barker J et al.; Survival studies were conducted on Legionella pneumophila cells that had been grown intracellularly in Acanthamoeba polyphaga and then exposed to polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB), benzisothiazolone (BIT), and 5-chloro-N-methylisothiazolone (CMIT) . Susceptibilities were also determined for L . pneumophila grown under iron-sufficient and iron-depleted conditions . BIT was relatively ineffective against cells grown under iron depletion; in contrast, iron-depleted conditions increased the susceptibilities of cells to PHMB and CMIT . The activities of all three biocides were greatly reduced against L . pneumophila grown in amoebae . PHMB (1 x MIC) gave 99.99% reductions in viability for cultures grown in broth within 6 h and no detectable survivors at 24 h but only 90 and 99.9% killing at 6 h and 24 h, respectively, for cells grown in amoebae . The antimicrobial properties of the three biocides against A . polyphaga were also determined . The majority of amoebae recovered from BIT treatment, but few, if any, survived CMIT treatment or exposure to PHMB . This study not only shows the profound effect that intra-amoebal growth has on the physiological status and antimicrobial susceptibility of L . pneumophila but also reveals PHMB to be a potential biocide for effective water treatment . In this respect, PHMB has significant activity, below its recommended use concentrations, against both the host amoeba and L . pneumophila. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 1992 Jul, 99(7), 295 - 7 {Environmental and food hygiene aspects of cestode infections of humans}; Ring C; Cysticercus bovis s . inermis, the larvae phase of Taenia saginata is still widely spread . Many reasons are at the origin thereof, e.g . incomplete destruction of the eggs of Taenia saginata during the waste water purification process and differing meat inspection practises . In an area with the same environmental and animal breeding and fattening conditions a yearly average of 6.49% infestation is found in one slaughterhouse, whilst the yearly average in a neighbouring slaughterhouse is 0.93% . The masseter muscles are the main site of infestation . The meat inspection legislation contributes to the infestation with tape-worms in man because of the weakening of the official inspection procedures. ASAIO J, 1992 Jul-Sep, 38(3), M334 - 7 Use of bone char as an adsorbent in preparation of water for dialysis; Muirhead N et al.; Currently, deionizers (DI) and reverse osmosis (RO) are used to prepare water for dialysis . When water metal levels increase, for example, with the use of alum, the variation in metal content can reduce RO performance . Pretreatment of water with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid or alkali can be used to reduce Al fouling . The authors examined adsorption of metal water contaminants with bone char (BRIMAC, Biolab, Oakville, Canada) as a cheaper alternative . Water treatment for the unit consists of a blend valve, 30 mu filter, 2 X 3 cu ft adsorption tanks, 5 mu filter, 30,000 grain automatic water softener, 5 mu filter, Millipore RO 1,000, 2 X 7" mixed bed DI in series, and a polysulfone ultrafilter . During 29 weeks of continuous bone char adsorption, raw water Al ranged from 0.022 to 0.298 ppm (mean, 0.097 +/- 0.075 ppm; cf . the Environmental Protection Agency's proposed drinking water standard of < 0.05 ppm) . Postadsorption Al ranged from 0.002 to 0.076 ppm (0.041 +/- 0.04), a decrease of 55-91% (83.0 +/- 8.5%) . Final water Al was < 0.001 at all times . No fouling of the RO membrane occurred . Residual chlorine after the first adsorption was < 0.02 to 0.09 ppm . Significant reductions in other metals, notably Pb, Cu, and Zn were noted . Bone char is a cheap, effective, and simple alternative for removing excess trace elements from water for hemodialysis . Further study to evaluate the efficacy of bone char in removing other organic and inorganic water contaminants is needed. J Microencapsul, 1992 Jul-Sep, 9(3), 287 - 307 An investigation of internal phase losses during the microencapsulation of fragrances; Flores RJ et al.; Prototype fragrances, prepared from common fragrance components, were extracted with water, recovered, and characterized by gas chromatography before and after the water treatment, revealing a significant loss of the more water-soluble components . Unextracted prototype fragrances were also microencapsulated by a gelatin/gum arabic coacervation process . The microencapsulated fragrance oils were recovered from the microcapsules, using pepsin enzyme to open up the capsules . Comparison of GC results of microencapsulated fragrance oil versus unencapsulated oil showed many of the changes could be ascribed to solubility losses of the more water-soluble components to the process water . Deliberate inclusion of toluene as a fragrance component in one of the prototype fragrances showed that some losses of highly volatile fragrance components can be expected during microencapsulation; but because most fragrance components do not approach the volatility of toluene, such losses are expected to be minimal . Chromatograms taken before and after microencapsulation of two commercial fragrances are discussed. Tuber Lung Dis, 1992 Jun, 73(3), 141 - 4 Occurrence of mycobacteria in biofilm samples; Schulze-Robbecke R et al.; The occurrence of mycobacteria was studied in 50 biofilm samples from water treatment plants, domestic water supply systems and aquaria . Mycobacteria were found in 90% of the samples and their densities usually ranged between 10(3) and 10(4) cfu/cm2 (maximum density 5.6 x 10(6) cfu/cm2) . Organic substances such as plastics and rubber were usually colonized by larger numbers of mycobacteria than inorganic substances such as copper and glass . The highest mycobacterial densities were found on plastic surfaces which were continuously perfused with water at temperatures between 22 and 30 degrees C . The species identified include Mycobacterium chelonae, M . flavescens, M . fortuitum, M . gordonae, M . kansasii, and M . terrae/nonchromogenicum . The occurrence in microcolonies indicate that biofilms may be an important replication site of aquatic mycobacteria. Sci Total Environ, 1992 May 30, 117-118, 531 - 41 Biodegradation of aquatic organic matter with reference to drinking water treatment; Huck PM et al.; This paper presents results obtained in a pilot scale investigation of biological treatment for preparation of drinking water from the North Saskatchewan River at Edmonton, Canada . Although the concentration of natural organic matter (NOM) in the raw water varied substantially over the study period, parameters measuring the biodegradability and reactivity to chlorine of the NOM were closely correlated to the NOM concentration . As a result of treatment including ozonation and adsorption, two patterns of response emerged . Some parameters decreased through each step of the treatment process while others usually increased following ozonation and then decreased through subsequent steps . The levels of this latter group were decreased by biological activity in the filters (except for one treatment stream) and further reduced in the biologically active granular activated carbon (GAC) contactors. Sci Total Environ, 1992 May 15, 116(3), 203 - 11 Accumulation of copper, lead, manganese and iron by field populations of Hydrodictyon reticulatum (Linn.) Lagerheim; Rai UN et al.; The potential of 'water-net' Hydrodictyon reticulatum to accumulate copper, lead, manganese and iron was determined in seven polluted water bodies having different physicochemical characteristics . The lead accumulation was linearly related with ambient concentration whereas in case of copper, manganese and iron it was maximum at lowest ambient level of metals . Investigations on response of alga to various concentrations of test metals under single metal treatments revealed that the algal cells are saturated at high equilibrium concentration of greater than 0.5 (lead), greater than 2.5 (copper and iron) and greater than 5.0 (manganese) mg/l . Alkaline pH favoured accumulation of these metals under field conditions . Alga showed high concentration factor (Cf) for all the metals both under field and laboratory conditions . However, Cf value was higher in case of manganese and iron in natural populations . Results indicate the possibility of using this alga in waste water treatment programmes. Am J Forensic Med Pathol, 1992 Mar, 13(1), 72 - 5 Dirty diving . Sudden death of a SCUBA diver in a water treatment facility; Nichols GR 2nd et al.; We report a case of a sudden death in a SCUBA diver working at a water treatment facility . The victim, an employee of the facility with a specialty in electronics, was a sport diver not qualified in commercial diving . While attempting to clean sludge from a blocked drain 25 ft under water, the diver was suddenly pinned against the drain valve when the sludge plug was broken up . We review the mechanics of the incident and the actual cause of death, asphyxia, as opposed to drowning . We believe this to be the first reported case of traumatic (pressure) asphyxia in a SCUBA diver. BMJ, 1992 Feb 22, 304(6825), 455 - 6 Health problems in Iraq; Acheson ED; PIP: Iraq is faced with large scale public health problems that have been caused by the destruction to their infrastructure during the Gulf war . Humanitarian aid is needed in order to avoid a large scale human disaster . In 1988 73% of Iraq's population lived in urban areas . The loss of electrical generating capacity has affected hospitals, water purification and sewage treatment . Iraq had made great strides int he health of their people with an infant mortality rate of 42/1000 in 1990 and 52./1000 for children under 5 . The international study team's survey of over 9000 households revealed surprising evidence of widespread chronic malnutrition . Based on accepted mortality as a baseline, data suggests that mortality among Iraqi infants and children under 5 doubled in 1991 . The current food ration provides only half of the energy requirement and with rapidly accelerating inflation, the cost of food while only make the situation worse . The UN Disaster Relief Office has received $1.059 billion from donor countries; but, only half of the requested $14 million has been funded through Unicef . This money is needed to meet basic requirements for water, sanitation, antibiotics, and vaccines . The UN Security Council approved resolutions 706 and 712 which would have allowed Iraq to sell $1.6 billion for foodstuffs, medicines, and materials and supplies necessary to civilian needs subject to monitoring and supervision to ensure equitable distribution . The Iraqi government has not met the requirements of 706 and 712 because of the monitoring conditions, so no money has been issued . More money is needed if humanitarian organizations are to do their work . Only $29 million of the $145 million needed for the 1st half of this year has been pledged . Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Feb, 58(2), 686 - 9 Disinfection of drinking water by using a novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes; Matsunaga T et al.; A novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes was constructed for disinfection of drinking water . Escherichia coli K-12 (10(2) cells per cm3) was sterilized when a cell suspension was passed through the reactor at a dilution rate of 6.0 h-1, and a potential of 0.7 V versus a saturated calomel electrode was applied to an electrode . The survival ratio increased with increasing dilution rate but was less than 0.1% at dilution rates of less than 6.0 h-1 . Although the survival ratio increased with increasing cell concentration above 10(3) cells per cm3, the disinfection rate also increased . The disinfection rate was 6.0 x 10(2) cells per cm3 per h at a cell concentration of 10(2) cells per cm3 . Continuous sterilization of E . coli cells was carried out for 24 h . Sterilization is based on an electrochemical reaction between the electrode and the cell which is mediated by intracellular coenzyme A . Sterilization of drinking water by using this reactor was successfully performed, demonstrating the potential of such a reactor for clean and efficient water purification. ANNA J, 1992 Feb, 19(1), 41 - 3, 87 Hazards with disinfecting agents in renal units! Stragier A. As already described in the April 1991 issue of EDTNA/ERCA Journal (Volume XVII, No . 2), the specific characteristics of various disinfecting agents delineate their respective application areas . Obviously, in a renal unit one needs a large range of disinfecting agents as they are being used for cleaning and disinfection of: water treatment devices; water tanks and distribution systems; single patient units; patient vascular access sites; dialysis connection procedure; dialyser reuse; instruments; floors, etc... . We have been taught never to mix different disinfecting agents as this might reduce their efficiency . However, it had never been hitherto reported that this might be dangerous or even cause an explosion! In this paper, we describe in detail how we were confronted with such an explosion . We further report that similar hazards occurred in other units and present an overview of possible hazards with the most common disinfecting agents . Finally, we emphasize some preventive guidelines to be put forth in renal units. Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1992, 147(3-4), 231 - 5 {The occurrence of aeromonads in a drinking water supply system}; Stelzer W et al.; This study concerns with the occurrence of aeromonads, coliforms and colony counts in a drinking water supply . Aeromonas contents were detected in the range of 15.0 to greater than 2,400/100 ml in the raw water samples of the man made lake . After the drinking water treatment process including fast sand filtration and chlorination aeromonads indicated in comparison to total coliforms and colony counts early and significant an after-growth of maximal 240 aeromonads/100 ml in the peripheric drinking water supply . Drinking water samples characterized by a higher water temperature resulted in the highest contents of aeromonads . The Aeromonas-Species Aeromonas sobria and Aeromonas hydrophila were isolated most frequently with 56.9 and 37.4 percent, respectively . The role of aeromonads as an indicator of after-growth in drinking water supplies is discussed. Can J Microbiol, 1992 Jan, 38(1), 34 - 7 Bacteria that degrade p-chlorophenol isolated from a continuous culture system; Kramer CM et al.; Two Gram-positive coryneform bacteria that degraded p-chlorophenol isolated from a continuous culture system are characterized . Isolate B (probably and Arthrobacter sp.) completely removed the p-chlorophenol from a medium with a concomitant increase in cell density within 16 h . Isolate F similarly removed the p-chlorophenol within 28 h but without an increase in cell density . Isolates B and F also removed the p-chlorophenol from a medium with p-chlorophenol as the sole carbon source within 32 and 48 h, respectively . The optimal temperature for p-chlorophenol degradation by both organisms was 25 to 30 degrees C . The optimal pH range for p-chlorophenol degradation was pH 7-9 for isolate B and pH 8-9 for isolate F . Since these native environmental bacteria can degrade p-chlorophenol, they may have an important application in waste water treatment processes. J Air Waste Manage Assoc, 1992 Jan, 42(1), 96 - 103 EPA SITE demonstration of the BioTrol soil washing process; Stinson MK et al.; A pilot-scale soil washing process, patented by BioTrol, Inc., was demonstrated on soil contaminated by wood treating waste, primarily pentachlorophenol (PCP) and creosote-derived polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) . Although soil washing was the main object of this demonstration, the treatment train that was evaluated included two other BioTrol technologies for treatment of waste streams from the soil washer . The three technologies were: The BioTrol Soil Washer (BSW)--a volume reduction process, which uses water to separate contaminated soil fractions from the bulk of the soil . The BioTrol Aqueous Treatment System (BATS)--a biological water treatment process . The Slurry Bioreactor (SBR)--a BioTrol biological slurry treatment process conducted in an EIMCO BIOLIFT reactor . The sandy soil at the site, consisting of less than 10 percent of fines, was well suited for treatment by soil washing . The soil washer was evaluated in two tests on soil samples containing 130 ppm and 680 ppm of PCP, respectively . The BSW successfully separated the feed soil (dry weight basis) into 83 percent of washed soil, 10 percent of woody residues, and 7 percent of fines . The washed soil retained about 10 percent of the feed soil contamination while 90 percent of the feed soil contamination was contained within the woody residues, fines, and process water . The soil washer achieved up to 89 percent removal of PCP and 88 percent of total PAHs, based on the difference between their levels in the as-is (wet) feed soil and the washed soil.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) Poult Sci, 1992 Jan, 71(1), 88 - 97 Performance and immunity of heat-stressed broilers fed vitamin- and electrolyte-supplemented drinking water; Ferket PR et al.; The efficacy of different vitamin and electrolyte treatments of drinking water for heat-stressed broilers was studied in two experiments . In Experiment 1, commercial broilers (50% male, 50% female, sexed), were subjected to four drinking water treatments: 1) unsupplemented water (control); 2) B-vitamins plus electrolytes (B+E1); 3) vitamins A, D, and E, B-vitamins plus electrolytes (ADEB+E1); and 4) vitamins A, D, and E and B-vitamins (ADEB) . Each treatment group was replicated in eight pens containing 70 birds . All birds were provided ad libitum access to feed through to 43 days of age and subjected to the water treatment from 16 to 21 days and 38 to 43 days . The birds were exposed to the 35 C ambient temperature during the last 72 h of each period . Immune function was tested on the males in each pen while they received the water treatments from 24 to 34 days of age . In comparison with the control, feed conversion was improved 5.6% by ADEB+E1 and ADEB, and body weight gain was improved 6.7% by ADEB (P less than .05) . Total and IgG antibody response against SRBC after primary immunization was improved by B+E1; whereas, B+E1 and ADEB treatments improved IgG after secondary immunization . The highest numbers of Sephadex-elicited peritoneal macrophages were found among ADEB-treated birds, but neither adherence nor phagocytic ability of macrophages from either group was affected . Natural killer cells from all except ADEB+E1-treated birds exhibited comparably high tumoricidal activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig, 1992, 43(1), 95 - 100 {Occurrence of aquatic organisms in water pipes and the resulting problems with drinking water disinfection}; Plachta J et al.; The present text is the first part of a paper aimed at specification of the requirements ensuring effective disinfection of drinking water . The discussed health hazards result not only from the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in water, but also from the occurrence of micro- and macroscopic plant and animal organisms . It was shown that while the traditional method for water treatment and disinfection reduces the number of these organisms, it fails to eliminate them completely, particularly in the case of tap water intake from shore intakes of surface waters. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1992, 65(5), 445 - 51 Fluid replacement beverages and maintenance of plasma volume during exercise: role of aldosterone and vasopressin; Criswell D et al.; Previous experiments have demonstrated that consumption of a glucose polymer-electrolyte (GP-E) beverage is superior to water in minimizing exercise-induced decreases in plasma volume (PV) . We tested the hypothesis that elevated plasma concentrations of vasopressin and/or aldosterone above that seen with water ingestion may explain this observation . Six trained cyclists performed 115 min of constant-load exercise (approximately 65% of maximal oxygen consumption) on a cycle ergometer on two occasions with 7 days separating experiments . Ambient conditions were maintained relatively constant for both exercise tests (29-30 degrees C; 58-66% relative humidity) . During each experiment, subjects consumed 400 ml of one of the following beverages 20 min prior to exercise and 275 ml immediately prior to and every 15 min during exercise: (1) distilled water or (2) GP-E drink contents = 7% carbohydrate (glucose polymers and fructose; 9 mmol.l-1 sodium; 5 mmol.l-1 potassium; osmolality 250 mosmol.l-1) . No significant difference (P > 0.05) existed in mean skin temperature, rectal temperature, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production or the respiratory exchange ratio between treatments . Further, no significant differences existed in plasma osmolality and plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride or magnesium between treatments . Plasma volume was better maintained (P < 0.05) in the GP-E trial at 90 and 120 min of exercise when compared to the water treatment . No differences existed in plasma levels of vasopressin or aldosterone between treatments at any measurement period . Further, the correlation coefficients between plasma concentrations of vasopressin and aldosterone and change in PV during exercise were 0.42 (P < 0.05) and 0.16 (P > 0.05), respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg, 1992, 54(3), 179 - 85; discussion 185-8 {Water quality}; Ringoir S; The quality of water is more and more important in the polluted world of today . The nephrologist is with his patients a great consumer of water; water for dialysis should be of the highest quality as each maintenance dialysis patient uses up to 150 liters 3 times per week for years, in direct contact with his blood through a very thin dialysis membrane . Water may be polluted at the collection-, treatment- or distribution centers or locally at the place of consumption . Aluminum, chloramine, pesticides, copper, herbicides and many other substances as well as bacteria, may be found in water . For these reasons the nephrologist uses a series of devices to clean or purify the water before use in his dialysis unit: softeners, de-ionisators, reverse-osmosis, charcoal filters, ultraviolet irradiation, a.o . A correct water circuit is important as well, as dead spaces could cause bacterial contamination . The ultra pure water has to be mixed before use in the dialyzer, with a concentrated electrolyte solution . The author discusses all these different aspects of water treatment in the particular situation of hemodialysis. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1991 Dec, 192(4), 287 - 323 {The hygienic situation of the central drinking water supply in the former East Germany--an evaluation of the annual reports on water hygiene from 1984 to 1989}; Schlosser FU et al.; In the former GDR an annual report on the situation in the field of communal hygiene had to be elaborated and submitted to the minister of public health . One part of this was the report on the hygienic situation in water supply, worked out by the Reference Laboratory for Water Hygiene in Bad Elster . After the political changes in autumn 1989 it became possible to analyse these reports as a whole . In this paper the reports from 1984 to 1989 are interpreted . The results of the laboratory measurements and field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorates are shown in 17 graphics and compared to the bacteriological and chemical limits in drinking water standards . Special issue is drawn on the estimation of the number of inhabitants concerned by reduced drinking-water quality or any hazardous situations . The special problems of the different districts are compared in some graphics . The hygienic safety of the central drinking-water supply units is assessed basing on the results of the field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorate . The Sanitation of the central drinking-water supply facilities in the new federal countries of the FRG is connected with the solution of a variety of technological problems, particularly the improvement of the water treatment techniques and the restoration of the pipe systems . The use of surface waters from extremely polluted rivers generates a high hygienic risk and requires the sanitation of the rivers . The high number of existing protection zones in the catchment areas for drinking-water is a valuable precondition to ensure the hygienic safety of the drinking-water supply in the new federal countries. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop, 1991 Dec, 71(4), 279 - 85 {Evaluation of the efficacy of temephos in the campaign against dracunculosis}; Chippaux JP et al.; Efficacy of water source treatment with temephos 200 EC had been tested with three methods after treatment of a natural reservoir in a temporary river bed . 1 . Residual pesticide in water treatment was measured with a biological test based on the pesticide toxicity on mosquito larvae from a laboratory stock for which the standard LD50 for the considered pesticide is stable and accurately known . After pesticide treatment, samples of the treated source water were taken . 30 larvae were placed in 200 ml of the treated water either pure or diluted in untreated water (ten dilutions tested) . The mortality rate of larvae after 24 hours was observed and marked on a probit scale . The LD50 was read directly from the curve . The corresponding dilution of the water sample that contained one standard LD50 was expressed in mg.l-1, using the value of the standard LD50 . This method was found reproducible and sensitive (up to 0.001 p.p.m.), depending on the value of the standard LD50 . 2 . Lethality of cyclopides was measured by numeration of survivals in 10 liters samples and compared to the natural population of a close untreated water reservoir in the higher part of the same river . Results showed that half-life of temephos was shorter than 3 days and the concentration corresponding to the LD50 for cyclopides was reached a week after treatment . Two or three weeks after treatment the cyclopide population was significant and further pesticide application was needed . 3 . Decrease of incidence of dracunculiasis was compiled by weekly examination of the population during the season of transmission . Authors observed an incidence of 37% during the 86/87 season.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) ASAIO Trans, 1991 Oct-Dec, 37(4), 588 - 9