Water treatment

Am J Kidney Dis, 1995 May, 25(5), 738 - 50
Quality of hemodialysis water: a 7-year multicenter study; Laurence RA et al.; Since dialysis was introduced 30 years ago, constant progress in technology permitted shortening the length of hemodialysis (HD) sessions . Through growing concerns about the inadequacy of tap water for dialysate production, hospitals soon opted for water treatment systems dedicated to HD . Nonetheless, persistent bacterial contamination and the occurrence of pyrogenic reactions were reported in some HD centers . Several factors contributing to this situation were identified . After the introduction of highly permeable synthetic membranes in the late 1970s, microbiologic problems reappeared . Thus, in 1977, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued proposed guidelines for HD water quality, followed in 1981 by an American National Standard for HD water, issued by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) . This Standard was also followed in Canada up to 1986, at which time a National Standard for Canada was released by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) . This prompted the Laboratoire de sante publique du Quebec (LSPQ) to implement in the Province of Quebec a voluntary HD water quality monitoring program . All 36 HD centers in the Province agreed to participate . The program was launched in February 1987 . Water was sampled monthly for bacteria over a 7-year period (February 1987 to January 1994), and every 3 months for pyrogen and chemicals . Participation was more than 95% . Bacteriologic samples were processed in duplicate on heterotrophic plate count agar by the pour plate technique . Incubation was for 48 +/- 3 hours at 35 +/- 0.5 degrees C, and the colonies were counted on a Quebec colony counter (New Brunswick Scientific Co, New Brunswick, NJ) . Pyrogen determinations were made using the limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test on 1:20 sample dilution by the gel-clot method . Chemical elements were measured by inductively coupled plasma emission, graphite furnace absorption, conductivity, ultraviolet light absorption, or colorimetry . Only fully treated HD water samples were selected from the 11,000 water samples received . Of the 5,820 samples retained for this study, 3,547 were for bacterial, 1,112 for pyrogen, and 1,161 for chemical analyses . Overall compliance to the CSA Standard was 70% for bacteria, 56% for pyrogen, and 86% for chemistry . The performance of different types of water treatments were compared and discussed; the best overall compliance was obtained by reverse osmosis combined with deionization (RO + DI) . The type of water treatment that proved most popular was RO alone, which was used by 22 HD centers (61%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Pediatrics, 1995 May, 95(5), 733 - 7
Inadequate basic preventive health measures: survey of missionary children in sub-Saharan Africa; Dwelle TL; OBJECTIVE . To determine the prevalence of basic preventive health measures for missionary children of sub-Saharan Africa . DESIGN . A retrospective survey of the immunization status, water and vegetable treatment, malaria prophylaxis and prevention, fluoride prophylaxis, immune globulin (human) prophylaxis, and preventive education was completed on 35 missionary children, aged 8 months to 17 years (7.3 year average), from several sub-Saharan African countries . RESULTS . Immunizations were incomplete in 91% of the children . Preventive measures were inappropriate for water treatment in 16%, cleaning of vegetables in 35%, malaria prophylaxis and prevention in 81%, fluoride prophylaxis in 84%, and immune globulin (human) prophylaxis in 94% of veteran children . Blood type was unknown in 86% and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase status was unknown in all children . Sixty seven percent of the children recently examined received no preventive education . CONCLUSIONS . Missionary children of sub-Saharan Africa are not provided necessary preventive health services . Physicians and agencies working with these children must provide appropriate preventive health guidance and services.

J Burn Care Rehabil, 1995 May-Jun, 16(3 Pt 1), 280 - 3
Corrosion of stainless steel pipes in a hydrotherapy pool by a silver-copper disinfection system; Nguyen ND et al.; The silver-copper disinfection system has been shown to be effective for water purification . It emits silver ions that combine with bacteria, causing their death . While disinfecting the water, these silver ions exhibit adverse effects on the stainless steel pipes in hydrotherapy pools . In an oxidation-reduction reaction the silver ions are converted into solid silver that is deposited on stainless steel, causing a corrosion reaction . The corroded steel has a black deposit that readily adheres to the burned patient's skin.

Food Addit Contam, 1995 May-Jun, 12(3), 479 - 83
Aspergillus flavus-induced chitosanase in germinating corn and peanut seeds: A . flavus mechanism for growth dominance over associated fungi and concomitant aflatoxin production; Cuero RG et al.; Chitosanase, a new class of enzymes with antifungal properties was induced by toxigenic Aspergillus flavus in both germinating corn and peanut seeds . The enzyme was partially purified and fractioned by SDS-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis activity and copolymerized with chitosan or glycolchitosan as substrate, then quantified by scanning densitometry and a 2-dimensional analysis software program . Chitosanase enzyme was markedly induced by toxigenic A . flavus growing in germinating corn and peanut seeds, as compared to control (water) which showed the lowest activity (almost nil in corn) . However, chitosanase induction was higher in seeds treated with chitosan from crustacea . Overall, enzyme activity was higher in peanut than in corn seeds . However, electrophoresed gels from peanut treated with A . flavus or water showed more polypeptides (three and one, respectively) than gels from corn seeds, which only showed one polypeptide for both A . flavus and water treatment . The enzyme molecular weight was estimated to be between 36,000 and 45,000.

Am J Hypertens, 1995 Apr, 8(4 Pt 1), 358 - 64
Overall hemodynamic studies after the chronic inhibition of endothelial-derived nitric oxide in rats; Huang M et al.; Previous studies have demonstrated that an acute intravenous administration of nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) causes a sustained hypertension and widespread vasoconstriction . However, little information is available regarding the chronic effect of L-NAME on circulatory hemodynamics . Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to characterize both the systemic and regional hemodynamics after the chronic inhibition of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in male Sprague Dawley rats . The rats were divided into two groups: control (n = 8) and L-NAME (n = 8) . The rats in the control group received only tap water and the rats in the L-NAME group received oral L-NAME solution at a dose of 0.1 mg/mL in the drinking water ad libitum . Four weeks after L-NAME or tap water treatment the rats were anesthetized with inactin, and mean arterial blood pressure, cardiac output, and individual organ flows were measured . Cardiac output and individual organ flows were measured using radioactive microspheres . Chronic administration of L-NAME resulted in a significant increase in mean arterial blood pressure from a control value of 118 +/- 4 mm Hg to 174 +/- 8 mm Hg (P < .01) . Cardiac output decreased from a control value of 29 +/- 2 mL/min/100 g to 20 +/- 2 mL/min/100 g (P < .01) and total peripheral resistance increased from a control value of 4.3 +/- 0.3 mm Hg/mL/min/100 g to 9.7 +/- 1.4 mm Hg/mL/min/100 g (P < .01) . In addition, chronic L-NAME treatment resulted in a widespread vasoconstriction and decrease in regional blood flows.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

JAMA, 1995 Mar 22-29, 273(12), 948 - 53
Safe water treatment and storage in the home . A practical new strategy to prevent waterborne disease; Mintz ED et al.; In many parts of the developing world, drinking water is collected from unsafe surface sources outside the home and is then held in household storage vessels . Drinking water may be contaminated at the source or during storage; strategies to reduce waterborne disease transmission must safeguard against both events . We describe a two-component prevention strategy, which allows an individual to disinfect drinking water immediately after collection (point-of-use disinfection) and then to store the water in narrow-mouthed, closed vessels designed to prevent recontamination (safe storage) . New disinfectant generators and better storage vessel designs make this strategy practical and inexpensive . This approach empowers households and communities that lack potable water to protect themselves against a variety of waterborne pathogens and has the potential to decrease the incidence of waterborne diarrheal disease.

Harefuah, 1995 Feb 15, 128(4), 213 - 6, 263
{Medical problems of Israelis travelling to tropical countries}; Shapira I et al.; Questionnaires were sent to 1500 Israelis who traveled overseas following evaluation and preparation in a travel advisory clinic . Of 517 who responded, 227 were males, and the mean age was 25 years . The most commonly encountered medical problems were insect bites (25%), diarrhea (67%), skin conditions (23%), high altitude problems (19%), tropical diseases (11%) and respiratory tract diseases (12%) . Of the 476 who took antimalarial prophylaxis, there were possible side effects in 81 (17%) . Insect repellents and water purification were used by 435 and 312 travelers, respectively, and condoms by 103 . Young Israelis commonly tour for prolonged periods through Asia, Africa and Latin America, and often acquire a wide spectrum of medical diseases, both infectious and noninfectious . A program of professional consultation and immunization is important in the prevention of travel-related disease.

Biodegradation, 1995, 6(4), 319 - 27
A rationale for the appropriate amount of inoculum in ready biodegradability tests; Struijs J et al.; Several screening methods at the so-called ready biodegradability level are suitable to test poorly soluble substances . Typical for these tests is that mineralization is evaluated from monitoring oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide production . Unfortunately, they suffer from a rather low precision in the calculated percentage of mineralization caused by subtracting a too high inoculum control measurement from the response in the test system . Criteria for blank oxygen consumption, due to the metabolic activity of the inoculum, are proposed from which maximum amounts of activated sludge or secondary effluent per litre test medium can be derived to be used as an appropriate inoculum . Both for current and future standardized tests the precision of the method can be kept within acceptable margins . Inoculum material was sampled from 40 communal biological waste water treatment plants . From endogenous respiration rates it was derived that the concentration of secondary effluent in the Closed Bottle Test can be increased up to 50 mL/L but that in respirometry tests inoculated with activated sludge the appropriate concentration is 10 mg/L dry matter or below, depending of the design of the test system.

Chemosphere, 1995 Jan, 30(1), 51 - 67
PCDD/Fs and non-o-PCBs in digested U.K . sewage sludges; Sewart A et al.; Twelve digested sewage sludges from rural and urban waste water treatment works in the north-west of England were analysed for PCDD/Fs and non-o-PCBs . The PCDD/F analysis of eight samples was repeated using high-resolution mass spectrometry, which enabled detection of the lower chlorinated congeners and calculation of TE values . sigma TEQ values for these eight samples ranged from 19-206 ng/kg with the higher values detected in the samples from urban/industrial areas . Examination of the congener/homologue profiles for the more contaminated samples suggests a major input from the use of pentachlorophenol . Archived sewage sludge samples collected and stored from one sewage treatment works in the south of England between 1942 and 1960 were analyzed to gain some insight into temporal trends and possible variations in source inputs . These provide some evidence of changing sources of PCDD/Fs over time and a decline in sigma TEQs since the 1950s.

J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1995 Jan, 80(1), 220 - 3
Thyroid adaptation to chronic tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablet use; LeMar HJ et al.; Tetraglycine hydroperiodide tablets purify water by liberating 8 mg free iodine/tablet . The effects of ingesting four tablets daily for 3 months on thyroid size, function, and radioactive iodine uptake were studied prospectively in eight healthy volunteers . Serum inorganic iodide increased from 2.7 to approximately 100 micrograms/dL . Urinary iodide excretion rose 150-fold from a pretreatment mean of 0.276 to 40 mg/day . Radioactive iodine uptake was less than 2% after 7 days and remained below 2% in all subjects at 90 days . Mean serum T4 and T3 declined after 7 days . T4 remained below baseline, whereas T3 had recovered by the end of the treatment period . Serum TSH and the TSH response to TRH rose significantly after 7 days and remained elevated at 3 months . The average thyroid volume, determined by ultrasound, increased by 37% . Neither hyperthyroidism nor hypothyroidism was observed . The mean thyroid volume in seven subjects available for repeat determinations an average of 7.1 months after the study was not different from the baseline value . In normal subjects, a reversible TSH-dependent thyroid enlargement occurs in response to the iodine load from daily use of tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablets.

Blood Purif, 1995, 13(3-4), 153 - 9
Technical challenges to successful dialyzer reuse; Ward RA; Limitations of dialyzer reuse technology may contribute to adverse patient outcomes . Assessing changes in dialyzer performance by measuring changes in total cell volume may not be valid for all membranes and reprocessing methods . Systems which determine dialyzer performance on-line are superior . Compliance with standards for microbial contamination of reprocessing fluids is poor and improvements in water treatment system design and monitoring are needed . Technological innovation is required to enable dialyzer performance to be monitored over an expanded molecular weight range and to ensure that dialyzer reprocessing can be routinely performed with sterile, non-pyrogenic solutions.

Neurotoxicology, 1995 Spring, 16(1), 187 - 90
Uptake of trace amounts of aluminum into the brain from drinking water; Walton J et al.; Throughout the world, alum (aluminum sulfate) is used in municipal water treatment plants to clarify water . Alum treatment usually removes aluminosilicate particles from drinking water but can substantially increase its soluble aluminum content (Zhang et al., 1994; Tran et al., 1993; Kopp, 1970) . Soluble aluminum is the more bioavailable and potentially toxic form . We gavaged simulated tap water, containing a low level of radioactive soluble aluminum (26Al), into the stomachs of rats . Measurements with accelerator mass spectrometry showed that trace amounts of 26Al from this single exposure directly entered their brain tissue . Uptake of a comparable level of aluminum into the human brain, from alum-treated drinking water over a prolonged period of time, may contribute to long-term health consequences for some people.

Nephrol Dial Transplant, 1995, 10 Suppl 3, 13 - 21
Renal osteodystrophy: pathogenesis and management; Gonzalez EA et al.; Several biochemical and hormonal abnormalities associated with renal insufficiency lead to complex disorders of bone which are described by the term renal osteodystrophy . Assessment of renal osteodystrophy in its early stages is primarily biochemical since symptoms generally do not occur until osteodystrophy is advanced . Therapy should be initiated early in the course of renal insufficiency in order to prevent the development of severe skeletal abnormalities . Foremost among the multiple factors involved in the pathogenesis of hyperparathyroidism are retention of phosphorus and low levels of calcitriol . The principal therapies for the prevention and treatment of hyperparathyroidism include the use of calcium salts taken with meals, as phosphorus binders, to prevent the absorption of phosphorus from the intestine, correction of acidosis and careful use of vitamin D metabolites such as calcitriol or 1-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol . The prevalence of aluminum induced osteomalacia appears to be declining as aluminum salts have been replaced by calcium containing phosphate binders and there is increased attention to adequate water purification for dialysis . Other disorders such as adynamic bone and the accumulation of beta 2-microglobulin may require bone biopsy for accurate diagnosis and are more difficult to treat effectively.

Bull Pan Am Health Organ, 1994 Dec, 28(4), 324 - 30
Lemon juice as a natural biocide for disinfecting drinking water; D'Aquino M et al.; The natural biocidal activity of lemon juice was studied in order to explore its possible use as a disinfectant and inhibitor of Vibrio cholerae in drinking water for areas lacking water treatment plants . From January through July 1993, water samples of varying alkalinity and hardness were prepared artificially, and underground and surface water samples were obtained from a number of different rural and urban areas in Argentina's Buenos Aires Province . After measuring the latter samples' hardness and alkalinity, a range of concentrations of lemon juice and other acidifiers were added to each sample, and the resulting pH as well as the samples' ability to destroy V . cholerae were determined . The results show that lemon juice can actively prevent survival of V . cholerae but that such activity is reduced in markedly alkaline water . For example, treatment of underground drinking water, which is characterized as having the greatest degree of alkalinity in our area, will typically destroy V . cholerae if the alkalinity of the water is the equivalent of that produced by 200 mg CaCO3 per liter, if enough lemon juice is added to bring the lemon juice concentration to 2%, and if the lemon juice is allowed to act for 30 minutes . All this points up the need to determine the alkalinity of water from any local source to be treated in the process of assessing the minimum concentration of lemon juice required.

Nurs Manage, 1994 Dec, 25(12), 44 - 6
The Midwest flood of 1993: surviving prolonged water loss; Gregory CA et al.; The Midwest Flood of 1993 was one of the most devastating and challenging disasters in Iowa's history . The city's water supply became contaminated, leaving more than 250,000 residents and all seven metropolitan medical centers without water . Despite heroic sandbagging efforts, floodwaters invaded the Des Moines water treatment plant's filtration system . The major strategies used at this facility during the disaster provide a framework for effective, coordinated emergency response.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1994 Nov, 43(3), 305 - 25
Toxicology studies of a chemical mixture of 25 groundwater contaminants: hepatic and renal assessment, response to carbon tetrachloride challenge, and influence of treatment-induced water restriction; Simmons JE et al.; Because groundwater contamination is an important environmental concern, we examined the hepatic and renal effects of repeated exposure to a mixture of 25 chemicals frequently found in groundwater near hazardous-waste disposal sites and the effect of such exposure on carbon tetrachloride (CCI4) toxicity . Adult male F-344 rats received ad libitum deionized water and feed (Ad Lib Water) or ad libitum 10% MIX (referring to 10% of a technically achievable stock mixture) and feed for 14 d . Because exposure to the 25-chemical mixture via the drinking water resulted in decreased water and feed consumption, restricted deionized water and feed controls (Restricted Water) were included . On d 14, rats were gavaged with 0, 0.0375, 0.05, 0.075 or 0.15 ml CCl4/kg, and hepatic and renal toxicity assessed 24 h later . Little or no hepatic and renal toxicity was observed in rats exposed to 10% MIX alone . No hepatic or renal lesions occurred that could be attributed to 10% MIX alone . Slight but statistically significant alterations, of uncertain biological significance, resulted from the water treatments: 10% MIX increased alanine aminotransferase, urea nitrogen (BUN), and BUN/creatinine ratio; Restricted Water increased 5'-nucleotidase and decreased alkaline phosphatase . Relative kidney weight was increased by both 10% MIX and Restricted Water . CCI4 resulted in significant dosage-dependent hepatotoxicity in all three water treatment groups but had little or no effect on renal indicators of toxicity . Relative to Ad Lib Water, significantly greater hepatotoxicity occurred in both 10% MIX and Restricted Water rats . The response to CCI4 in the Restricted Water rats was similar to that of 10% MIX rats, indicating that a substantial portion of the effect of 10% MIX on CCI4 hepatotoxicity is due to decreased water and feed intake.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1994 Oct, 196(3), 197 - 226
{Purification systems using plants . Principles--method variations--use possibilities}; Thofern U; Constructed wetlands are natural (waste) water treatment systems that combine biological, chemical and physical processes . In recent years various plants with distinct design features such as size, flow characteristics and type of vegetation have been built and operated worldwide . Meanwhile a lot of data regarding the efficiency and reliability are available that enable engineers, operators and water boards to select a suitable system for many applications.

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1994 Sep 16, 43(36), 661 - 9
Assessment of inadequately filtered public drinking water--Washington, D.C., December 1993; Boilerbaisse: an outbreak of methemoglobinemia in New Jersey in 1992; Centers for Disease Control and PreventionBACKGROUND . On October 20, 1992, > 40 children from one elementary school visited the school nurse due to the acute onset of blue lips and hands, vomiting, and headache during and after the school lunch periods . Forty-nine children were seen by physicians that day and 14 were hospitalized . Laboratory analysis revealed methemoglobinemia in many of the children . All recovered in 36 hours . OBJECTIVE . A case-control study was supplemented by environmental and laboratory investigations to determine the outbreak source . METHODS . Cases were selected based on the laboratory diagnosis of methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin level > 2%) . Children whose methemoglobin levels were missing or < 2% were excluded from analysis . Controls were obtained by selecting every third name from a school roster . The parents of 29 students who met the case definition and 52 controls were interviewed . RESULTS . All 29 cases and 33% (17/52) of the controls ate soup during the school lunch (odds ratio undefined, lower 95% confidence limit 16.1) . Two pots of soup were prepared from ready-to-serve cans, which were diluted with water and enriched with a commercially prepared flavor enhancer . The school's boiler, dormant during the previous 5 months, was restarted on the morning of the outbreak . The boiler also served as a tankless hot water heater . Laboratory analysis of the soup identified abnormally high quantities of nitrite (459 ppm) and sodium metaborate, major components of the boiler water treatment solution . Undiluted soup from the same lot had 2.0 ppm nitrites; the flavor enhancer had 2.2 ppm nitrites . Nitrites were present in the hot potable water system (4 to 10 ppm) and absent in the cold potable water system . CONCLUSIONS . This outbreak of methemoglobinemia due to nitrite poisoning was traced to soup contaminated by nitrites in a boiler additive . Nitrites are ubiquitous and potentially hazardous inorganic ions . Extreme caution should be used when the possibility for toxic human exposure to nitrites exists.

Arh Hig Rada Toksikol, 1994 Sep, 45(3), 275 - 84
{Man, the environment and ozone}; Pavlovic M et al.; Ozone is a naturally occurring gas, formed in the trimolecular reaction of oxygen atoms with molecular oxygen . Its strong absorption in the UV region provides protection from excessive irradiation of the Earth's surface . Occupational exposure to ozone involves electric arc welding, mercury vapour lamps, office photocopy machines, X-ray generators and other high voltage electrical equipment, water purification and bleaching . Ozone is the most abundant oxidant in the photochemical smog . The lung cell injury induced by ozone involves a complex biochemical mechanism which is due to free radical generation . Moderate exposure produces upper respiratory tract symptoms and eye irritation, severe acute exposure results in pulmonary oedema . Measurements of atmospheric ozone concentrations in Croatia began at the end of the 19th century; continuous monitoring has been carried out since 1975.

Sci Total Environ, 1994 Aug 15, 153(1-2), 85 - 96
The use of epidemiological concepts and techniques to discern factors associated with the nitrate concentration of well water on swine farms in the USA; Bruning-Fann C et al.; This epidemiological study investigates the relationship between various factors associated with swine farms and the nitrate concentration of well water in the USA . Through a random sampling procedure, 605 swine farms located in 18 states were selected for inclusion in this study . A total of 631 well water samples were collected from these farms and tested for a variety of elements and compounds . The concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, ammonia, fluoride, bromide and lithium were determined by an ion chromatograph while an inductively coupled argon plasma emission spectrophotometer was used to determine the concentrations of calcium, magnesium, barium, zinc, iron and phosphate . Data concerning various farm factors were gathered via a personally administered questionnaire . The data were examined using both multiple linear regression and logistic regression . Results indicate that 53.6% (338/631) of the wells contained detectable levels of nitrate, 11.7% (74/631) had nitrate levels exceeding 45 ppm and 4.3% (27/631) exceeded 100 ppm . Logistic models demonstrated an association between nitrate concentrations > 45 ppm, increasing water potassium levels and wells < 100 ft deep . Nitrate levels > 100 ppm were related to increasing water concentrations of potassium, magnesium, barium and zinc, wells 6-10 years old, increasing distance from the study farm to the nearest cattle farm and a greater distance to the nearest waterway located off the study farm . A negative association was seen between nitrate concentrations > 100 ppm, the water level of sulfate, and the use of the same well to supply both the household and livestock . Multiple linear regression models revealed a positive association between increasing nitrate concentration and the water levels of chloride, calcium, zinc and the greater number of miles from the study farm to the nearest farm with cattle or sheep . A negative association was noted between the concentration of well water nitrate and the water levels of sulfate and ammonia, the use of water treatment, the number of miles to the nearest farm with poultry, the employment of water treatment and the use of the same well to supply water to both livestock and the household.

N Engl J Med, 1994 Jul 21, 331(3), 161 - 7
A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply; Mac Kenzie WR et al.; BACKGROUND . Early in the spring of 1993 there was a widespread outbreak of acute watery diarrhea among the residents of Milwaukee . METHODS . We investigated the two Milwaukee water-treatment plants, gathered data from clinical laboratories on the results of tests for enteric pathogens, and examined ice made during the time of the outbreak for cryptosporidium oocysts . We surveyed residents with confirmed cryptosporidium infection and a sample of those with acute watery diarrhea consistent with cryptosporidium infection . To estimate the magnitude of the outbreak, we also conducted a survey using randomly selected telephone numbers in Milwaukee and four surrounding counties . RESULTS . There were marked increases in the turbidity of treated water at the city's southern water-treatment plant from March 23 until April 9, when the plant was shut down . Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in water from ice made in southern Milwaukee during these weeks . The rates of isolation of other enteric pathogens remained stable, but there was more than a 100-fold increase in the rate of isolation of cryptosporidium . The median duration of illness was 9 days (range, 1 to 55) . The median maximal number of stools per day was 12 (range, 1 to 90) . Among 285 people surveyed who had laboratory-confirmed cryptosporidiosis, the clinical manifestations included watery diarrhea (in 93 percent), abdominal cramps (in 84 percent), fever (in 57 percent), and vomiting (in 48 percent) . We estimate that 403,000 people had watery diarrhea attributable to this outbreak . CONCLUSIONS . This massive outbreak of watery diarrhea was caused by cryptosporidium oocysts that passed through the filtration system of one of the city's water-treatment plants . Water-quality standards and the testing of patients for cryptosporidium were not adequate to detect this outbreak.

Indian J Exp Biol, 1994 Jul, 32(7), 443 - 9
Methane utilizing bacteria and their biotechnological applications; Bodrossy L et al.; Methanotroph microorganisms oxidize methane in four steps, producing methanol, formaldehyde, formate intermediers and eventually degrade methane to carbon dioxide and water . It is possible to separate the pathway into four steps in the cell free extract or after partial purification of the various enzymes . The key enzyme is a metalloenzyme, methane monooxygenase (MMO) which catalyses the oxidation of methane to methanol . MMO is also capable of biodegrading exceptionally harmful and stable chlorinated hydrocarbons . Produced by various industrial activities, most chlorinated hydrocarbons are toxic, potential and/or proven carcinogens and their decomposition challenges water treatment technologies.

Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1994 Jun, 149(6), 1407 - 12
Respiratory disorders and atopy in Danish refuse workers; Sigsgaard T et al.; This survey describes respiratory and mucosal symptoms of garbage-handling and recycling workers in Denmark . The study includes 20 paper-sorting workers, eight compost workers, and 44 garbage-handling workers . As a control group, 119 workers from water purification plants of Copenhagen were chosen; workers in our study had a lower mean age and shorter mean employment time than did members of the control group . There was no significant difference in tobacco consumption between the groups . Garbage-handling workers were exposed to a significantly higher mean concentration (SD) of total dust than were water supply workers-0.74 (0.77) mg/m3 compared with 0.42 (0.25) mg/m3 (p < 0.05) . Total count of microorganisms was significantly higher in garbage-handling and composting areas compared with paper-sorting as well as water supply areas 0.46 (0.125) x 10(5), 0.54 (0.77) x 10(5), 4.7 (5.89) x 10(3), and 0.08 (0.04) x 10(3) cfu/m3, respectively (p < 0.05) . This difference could not be explained as an effect of differential growth requirements . Significantly higher amounts of gram-negative bacteria were found in composting and garbage-handling plants than in water-supply plants . In garbage-handling plants only, there were significantly higher amounts of endotoxins than in paper-sorting plants . Significantly higher prevalence of chest tightness (14%), flu-like symptoms (14%), itching eyes (27%), itching nose (14), and sore or itching throat (21%) were found among garbage-handling workers, compared with, respectively, 1, 1, 11 and 0% among water-supply workers . Furthermore, prevalence of nausea and vomiting or diarrhea rose from 2% and 7% among the water-supply workers to 19% and 27% among the garbage workers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adv Dent Res, 1994 Jun, 8(1), 5 - 14
Intake and metabolism of fluoride; Whitford GM; The purpose of this paper is to discuss the major factors that determine the body burden of inorganic fluoride . Fluoride intake 25 or more years ago was determined mainly by measurement of the concentration of the ion in the drinking water supply . This is not necessarily true today because of ingestion from fluoride-containing dental products, the "halo effect", the consumption of bottled water, and the use of water purification systems in the home . Therefore, the concentration of fluoride in drinking water may not be a reliable indicator of previous intake . Under most conditions, fluoride is rapidly and extensively absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . The rate of gastric absorption is inversely related to the pH of the gastric contents . Overall absorption is reduced by calcium and certain other cations and by elevated plasma fluoride levels . Fluoride removal from plasma occurs by calcified tissue uptake and urinary excretion . About 99% of the body burden of fluoride is associated with calcified tissues, and most of it is not exchangeable . In general, the clearance of fluoride from plasma by the skeleton is inversely related to the stage of skeletal development . Skeletal uptake, however, can be positive or negative, depending on the level of fluoride intake, hormonal status, and other factors . Dentin fluoride concentrations tend to increase throughout life and appear to be similar to those in bone . Research to determine whether dentin is a reliable biomarker for the body burden of fluoride is recommended . The renal clearance of fluoride is high compared with other halogens . It is directly related to urinary pH . Factors that acidify the urine increase the retention of fluoride and vice versa . The renal clearance of fluoride decreases and tissue levels increase when the glomerular filtration rate is depressed on a chronic basis.

Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi, 1994 May, 19(5), 283 - 4, 319
{An orthogonal method for comparing extracting techniques of licorice root extract}; Huang WA et al.; A L9(3(4)) form developed by the orthogonal method was used to study the size, extraction solvent and extraction frequency of licorice root extract, and taking the recovery of glycyrrhizic acid as the criteria, a comparison was made on the different ways of extracting the herb . The result showed the glycyrrhizic acid could be recovered over 10% (about 7% higher than that from water treatment) when the herb was cut into pieces and then extracted by fluxing for 3 times with 60% alcohol containing 0.3% ammonia.

Mutat Res, 1994 Apr, 312(2), 187 - 91
No significant increase in sister-chromatid exchanges in cultured blood lymphocytes from workers in a large oil refinery; Khalil AM et al.; In order to assess the potential genotoxic effects of occupational exposure to petrochemicals, the incidence of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCE) in cultured lymphocytes was studied . Blood samples were taken from 233 individuals (184 exposed and 49 worksite controls) in an oil refinery and from 47 community control persons . The data showed a non-significant elevation of SCE frequency in occupationally exposed workers when compared to non-exposed individuals . The mean SCE frequency per cell ranged from 7.55 +/- 0.55 in blood of lube oil blending and canning (LOBC) workers to 9.13 +/- 0.71 in catalytic cracking and water treatment (CCWT) workers . The control values were 6.2 +/- 0.67 and 7.21 +/- 0.45 in the community and worksite individuals, respectively . Furthermore, the SCE frequencies were influenced neither by age nor by smoking.

J Biotechnol, 1994 Mar 31, 33(2), 123 - 33
The photocatalytic production of organic-free water for molecular biological and pharmaceutical applications; Cooper G et al.; The inability of conventional water-purification systems to meet the ultra-high purity needs of molecular biology and biopharmaceuticals reliably was attributed to their almost exclusive utilization of phase-transfer technologies . Water quality may unpredictably degrade when confronted by microorganism blooms or altered feed water characteristics . Photocatalytic point-of-use water-purification systems fed by deionized water were demonstrated to meet the most stringent water-purity needs of the molecular biologist . The reliability of the photocatalytic water-purification technology was attributed to its ability to destroy organic contaminants rather than just effect their phase transfer . Photocatalytically produced water was shown to be free of detectable microorganisms, DNA, endotoxins and RNAses . It is suitable for immunological studies involving tissue and other cell cultures because of its lack of detectable endotoxins . Because DNA was also undetectable, it is suitable for DNA and endotoxin zero-standards as well as pharmaceutical formulation . The photocatalytic water is a reliable substitute for diethyl pyrocarbonate-treated water used in RNA work, compatible with PCR and sufficiently free from other contaminants to be useful for most biochemical and enzymatic assays.

FEMS Microbiol Rev, 1994 Mar, 13(2-3), 377 - 86
Aspergilli and lignocellulosics: enzymology and biotechnological applications; Duarte JC et al.; Aspergilli are versatile ascomycetes that are able to transform at a rapid rate a wide spectrum of lignin-related aromatic compounds . While it is clear that these fungi can degrade phenolic and polysaccharide components from lignocellulosic material, the status regarding degradation of high-molecular mass lignins is controversial . This review compiles data from the literature as well as that from the authors' laboratory with the aim of clarifying this point . The main body of evidence points towards the inability of aspergilli alone to degrade lignin free of low-molecular mass contaminants . Nevertheless, the ability of this genus to efficiently degrade hemicelluloses makes it an essential participant in the complex microbial system necessary for wood decay under natural conditions . Aspergilli are known to overproduce high levels of hemicellulolytic enzymes . Out of the large array of these enzymes that act in concert to degrade lignocellulosic material, only endoxylanases of aspergilli are described in so far as these are the main activities required for enzyme-aided bleaching . The biochemical features of the endoxylanases from Aspergillus niger are briefly described as these serve to illustrate how a complex family of isozymes is necessary to deal with the structural and chemical heterogeneity of xylans . Emphasis is placed on the biotechnological applications of lignocellulosic materials transformed by aspergilli . The key application areas are biopulping and biobleaching where a reduction in the use of environmentally harmful chemicals traditionally used in the pulp and paper industry is envisaged . Waste water treatment represents another vast application area where aspergilli have been shown to be effective not only in colour removal but also in the bioconversion of potentially noxious substances into useful bioproducts.

Optom Vis Sci, 1994 Feb, 71(2), 109 - 14
Effect of corneal edema upon the smoothness of excimer laser ablation; Fields CR et al.; We studied the effect of corneal hydration upon ablation rate in excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) . This variable may alter the subepithelial smoothness and the resulting clarity of the result . The eyes of freshly slaughtered pigs (N = 5) and the eyes of Dutch-belted rabbits (N = 4) (in vivo) were de-epithelialized and central ablation zones 3.0 to 4.5 mm in diameter were produced in the subepithelial corneal layers using a 193 nm argon fluoride (ArF) ophthalmic excimer laser . Ablation was performed immediately or after a 15-min incubation period in distilled water as a means of inducing corneal edema . Smoothness was evaluated using specular reflection microscopy and showed the water-treated surface to be increasingly less regular than the nonwater-treated samples . Water treatment may affect the final outcome of the PRK procedure and indicates the need to monitor the preoperative cornea for the development of any edema, especially after the epithelium is removed.

J Electron Microsc (Tokyo), 1994 Feb, 43(1), 20 - 4
Changes in the distribution of F-actin in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe by arresting growth in distilled water: correlative studies with fluorescence and electron microscopy; Kanbe T et al.; Freeze-substitution electron microscopy of Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells starved in distilled water was conducted to define ultrastructural counterparts of actin visualized by fluorescence microscopy using rhodamine-conjugated phalloidin (Rh-ph) . Starvation in distilled water caused remarkable changes in actin distribution and ultrastructural changes in S . pombe . Fluorescence microscopy of the starved cells showed that the dots of actin at the growing ends became thick actin cables via an enlarged patched form of actin . These changes were reversible, and growth-arrested cells resumed their original pattern of actin distribution upon return to growth medium . Electron microscopy of starved cells showed bundles of thin filaments and clusters of filamentous balls in the cytoplasm, which corresponded to the actin cables and enlarged actin dots, respectively, as seen by fluorescence microscopy . Vesicles polarized at the growing cell ends were dispersed in the cytoplasm by distilled water treatment, indicating that actin organization plays a role in directing vesicle location.

Poult Sci, 1994 Jan, 73(1), 194 - 201
Effects of ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate on adrenocortical activation and fear-related behavior in broiler chickens; Satterlee DG et al.; The effects of supplemental ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (APP) on adrenocortical function and underlying fearfulness in broiler chickens were assessed in a number of test situations . Chicks pretreated for a minimum of 24 h with APP (1,000 ppm equivalents of L-ascorbic acid) in their drinking water or with no APP (tap water controls; CON) had blood samples taken immediately following water treatment and again after exposure to a capture and cooping stressor for 10 min . First, although the cooping stressor markedly increased plasma corticosterone concentrations, pretreatment with APP failed to attenuate this adrenocortical response . Second, APP-treated chicks showed less freezing and vocalized sooner in an open field (novel environment) than did controls . They also showed nonsignificant tendencies toward accelerated and enhanced ambulation . Third, supplementation with APP reduced the duration of the birds' tonic immobility fear reactions . Collectively, these behavioral effects are indicative of dampened fear . The apparent reduction of nonspecific, underlying fearfulness by APP treatment may have important implications for poultry welfare and performance.

Poult Sci, 1994 Jan, 73(1), 106 - 12
Evidence against the induction of immunological tolerance by feeding antigens to chickens; Miller CC et al.; A series of studies was conducted to determine whether oral tolerance shown to be inducible in rodents can be induced in chickens . A preliminary study was performed with male juvenile Sprague-Dawley rats to ascertain the ability of ELISA to detect oral tolerance induction . Two groups of six rats were provided water with or without 2 mg/mL BSA for 14 consecutive d to induce tolerance . Eight days following water treatment, the rats were challenged i.m . with 1 mg BSA . Serum collected from the rats 20 d later showed decreased (P < .01) anti-BSA ELISA titers in the group given BSA in the water relative to those given ordinary water . Three experiments were conducted to determine whether oral tolerance could be induced in chickens . Birds were given daily oral doses of 25 mg BSA for 14 d (Experiment 1), or fed 5% casein in their diet for 14 d (Experiment 2), or 1 mL of a 50% suspension of SRBC for 10 d (Experiment 3) . All birds were challenged with the same antigen after oral dosing . Birds orally dosed with BSA prior to challenge with BSA had titers similar to birds not fed BSA prior to challenge with BSA . When chickens were fed casein (P < .05) or orally gavaged with SRBC (P < .1), titers were enhanced . These observations suggest that feeding antigens prior to injection with the same antigen leads to an enhanced humoral immune response in birds and not tolerance.

Vet Med (Praha), 1994, 39(11), 677 - 86
{Study of the efficacy of sewage treatment systems for fluid waste on pig farms in Slovakia}; Venglovsky J et al.; Bacteriological, helminthological and physico-chemical examinations were carried out to investigate the technological procedure in three water treatment plants treating slurry from large-capacity pig farms (Kosicka Polianka, Spisske Vlachy, Vel'ky Dur) . Our investigations were focused on the testing of effectiveness of mechanical, chemical and biological treatment system most frequently used in Slovakia . Our investigations revealed that water-treatment plants, operating on pig farms, fulfil only the supplies management requirements concerning the treated water, discharged into the recipient . From the hygienic viewpoint further processing or utilization of the solid fraction remains unsolved . This fraction contains considerable concentrations of bacteria and parasitic germs (Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis, Isospora sp., Eimeria sp.) most of which exhibit high tenacity in the environment . It is recommended to process this solid fraction by composting before it is applied as a manure . However, the measured values did not exceed the reference hygienic limits . The technological stage of chemical treatment, which follows after the separation and utilizes some coagulants (aluminium sulphate, ferrous sulphate), can increase the chemical load of water stripped of crude organic pollutants, by some undesirable chemical elements.

Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 1994, 140, 1 - 164
National standards and guidelines for pesticides in water, sediment, and aquatic organisms: application to water-quality assessments; Nowell LH et al.; National standards and guidelines for pesticides can be useful tools in water-quality assessment for evaluating potential human health or ecological effects of measured pesticide residues in water, bed sediment, or aquatic organisms . However, valid use of a given standard or guideline requires an understanding of its technical basis and underlying assumptions . Each type of standard or guideline is specific for one sampling medium (water, bed sediment, and fish and shellfish tissue) and is aimed at protection of one or more beneficial uses of the hydrologic system (drinking water, fish and shellfish consumption, aquatic organisms, and wildlife) . These characteristics can be used to identify which standards and guidelines are appropriate for comparison with measured pesticide concentrations in environmental samples from a given hydrologic system . A review of standards and guidelines can be restricted to the applicable sampling medium . Then, the beneficial uses of the hydrologic system need to be identified and the measured pesticide concentrations compared with standards and guidelines for all beneficial uses that apply to that system . Several key factors that must be considered when applying this general process to water-quality assessment are summarized below . Two precautions need to be considered regarding sampling media: 1 . Standards and guidelines for water distinguish between finished drinking water (potable water, often treated) and ambient surface water . If standards and guidelines for drinking water (EPA primary drinking-water regulations and drinking-water health advisories) are applied to measured pesticide concentrations in ambient water samples, the effects of water treatment (such as filtration) need to be considered . 2 . Standards and guidelines for fish and shellfish tissue distinguish between edible fish and shellfish tissue and whole fish tissue . Comparison of pesticide concentrations in whole fish tissue with standards or guidelines for edible fish and shellfish tissue is appropriate only as a screening procedure to determine whether additional sampling and analysis for contaminants in edible fish fillets are warranted . For some sampling media (water, fish and shellfish tissues), both standards and guidelines may exist for a given pesticide . Standards and guidelines may differ in their technical bases and in the implications or consequences of finding measured concentrations in exceedance of the standard or guideline value . Therefore, comparison of measured pesticide concentrations with both standards and guidelines is useful because each provides different information about the hydrologic system.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Undersea Hyperb Med, 1993 Dec, 20(4), 309 - 20
Failure to reduce body water loss in cold-water immersion by glycerol ingestion; Arnall DA et al.; The efficacy of ingesting an aqueous glycerol solution to enhance body water retention during prolonged cold-water dives was evaluated . Nine Naval Special Warfare divers performed a 3-h dive in 13 degrees C water . Divers were assigned to either a water-treatment group (WT) or a glycerol-treatment (GT) group . WT ingested 30 ml water/kg lean body mass (LBM) . GT ingested a solution consisting of 1.2 ml glycerol/kg LBM and 30 ml water/kg LBM . Blood was drawn at prehydration, 90 min after hydration, and 20 min after the 3-h dive for serum glycerol, glucose, free fatty acids, lactate, and electrolyte determinations . Fluid intake and output was recorded and urine analyzed for osmolality, electrolytes, and specific gravity . Serum glycerol values in GT were 200 times greater at posthydration than prehydration and 100 times greater at postdive than at prehydration . Urine output, total body weight loss, and non-urine weight loss during posthydration and dive sampling periods were not significantly different between treatment groups . Hyperhydration with an aqueous glycerol solution of 1.2 ml glycerol/kg LBM seems ineffective in significantly reducing body water loss in divers during prolonged cold-water immersion.

Mil Med, 1993 Dec, 158(12), 794 - 7
An iodine load from water-purification tablets alters thyroid function in humans; Georgitis WJ et al.; Tablets containing tetraglycine hydroperiodide are used to purify small quantities of water for drinking . Because short-term administration of stable iodide can alter thyroid function in normal adults, we evaluated the effects of these tablets on thyroid function during a military field training exercise . Fourteen normal volunteers participated in the study . After an adjustment period of 2 weeks to the field environment, half of the subjects received four dissolved water-purification tablets (32 mg free iodine) daily for 7 consecutive days while the other half served as controls . At the end of the study the treatment group showed reductions in the mean serum levels of thyroxine (14%) and total triiodothyronine (15%) and significant increments in basal thyrotropin (TSH) (122%) and the TSH response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (49%) compared to baseline values . The basal TSH level rose above the normal range in two subjects . No significant changes in any parameter of thyroid function were observed in the control subjects . One week of daily exposure to the iodine load from four tetraglycine hydroperiodide water-purification tablets causes mild impairment of thyroid function in humans.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 Nov, 59(11), 3674 - 80
Comparison of Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris cyst inactivation by ozone; Finch GR et al.; Inactivation of Giardia lamblia and Giardia muris cysts was compared by using an ozone demand-free 0.05 M phosphate buffer in bench-scale batch reactors at 22 degrees C . Ozone was added to each trial from a concentrated stock solution for contact times of 2 and 5 min . The viability of the control and treated cysts was evaluated by using the C3H/HeN mouse and Mongolian gerbil models for G . muris and G . lamblia, respectively . The resistance of G . lamblia to ozone was not significantly different from that of G . muris under the study conditions, contrary to previously reported data that suggested G . lamblia was significantly more sensitive to ozone than G . muris was . The simple Ct value for 2 log unit inactivation of G . lamblia was 2.4 times higher than the Ct value recommended by the Surface Water Treatment Rule.

Risk Anal, 1993 Oct, 13(5), 545 - 52
Risk assessment of virus in drinking water; Haas CN et al.; The reevaluation of drinking water treatment practices in a desire to minimize the formation of disinfection byproducts while assuring minimum levels of public health protection against infectious organisms has caused it to become necessary to consider the problem of estimation of risks posed from exposure to low levels of microorganisms, such as virus or protozoans, found in treated drinking water . This paper outlines a methodology based on risk assessment principles to approach the problem . The methodology is validated by comparison with results obtained in a prospective epidemiological study . It is feasible to produce both point and interval estimates of infection, illness and perhaps mortality by this methodology . Areas of uncertainty which require future data are indicated.

Immun Infekt, 1993 Oct, 21(5), 122 - 5
{Occurrence and detection of viruses in drinking water}; Tougianidou D et al.; Viruses can pass disinfection steps of water treatment plants without being inactivated . Investigations during the last 15 years revealed repeatedly the presence of enteric viruses in finished water meeting standards for coliform bacteria . Methods for the detection of viruses in water which implicate their growth on specific cell cultures are very time consuming and do not cover many viral species . Molecular detection methods including PCR techniques may help in the development of alternate methods for virus detection particularly in drinking water which usually does not contain PCR inhibiting factors.

West Afr J Med, 1993 Oct-Dec, 12(4), 185 - 8
Ethnographic study on childhood diarrhoeal diseases in a rural Nigerian community; Odujinrin OM et al.; Mothers in thirty households in a rural Nigerian community were subjected to ethnographic studies on food handling practices as they relate to diarrhoeal diseases in children . The study had a first phase of three open-ended unstructured interviews each lasting about 2 hours and a second phase of direct observations on food handling practices during preparation, administration and storage by mothers . Results indicated that as many as 20 (66.7%) of the mothers identified diarrhoea as a common cause of childhood diseases . Diarrhoea due to food contamination was recognized by as many as 18 (60.0%) respondents . Four important food handling practices relating to water treatment, handwashing before preparation and feeding, administration and storage were recognized in the first phase but the claimed practices in the first phase differed significantly from the observed practices in the second phase (p < 0.025) . Many (32.1%) mothers had contaminating food handling behaviours . The low literacy level, poverty and lack of good personal hygiene among the studies population were the most likely causes of the behaviours observed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 Aug, 59(8), 2418 - 24
Clostridium perfringens and somatic coliphages as indicators of the efficiency of drinking water treatment for viruses and protozoan cysts; Payment P et al.; To find the most suitable indicator of viral and parasitic contamination of drinking water, large-volume samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of pathogens (cultivable human enteric viruses, Giardia lamblia cysts, and Cryptosporidium oocysts) and potential indicators (somatic and male-specific coliphages, Clostridium perfringens) . The samples were obtained from three water treatment plants by using conventional or better treatments (ozonation, biological filtration) . All samples of river water contained the microorganisms sought, and only C . perfringens counts were correlated with human enteric viruses, cysts, or oocysts . For settled and filtered water samples, all indicators were statistically correlated with human enteric viruses but not with cysts or oocysts . By using multiple regression, the somatic coliphage counts were the only explanatory variable for the human enteric virus counts in settled water, while in filtered water samples it was C . perfringens counts . Finished water samples of 1,000 liters each were free of all microorganisms, except for a single sample that contained low levels of cysts and oocysts of undetermined viability . Three of nine finished water samples of 20,000 liters each revealed residual levels of somatic coliphages at 0.03, 0.10, and 0.26 per 100 liters . Measured virus removal was more than 4 to 5 log10, and cyst removal was more than 4 log10 . Coliphage and C . perfringens counts suggested that the total removal and inactivation was more than 7 log10 viable microorganisms . C . perfringens counts appear to be the most suitable indicator for the inactivation and removal of viruses in drinking water treatment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

J Chromatogr, 1993 Jul 23, 643(1-2), 145 - 61
Pollutants in drinking water and waste water; Schroder HF; Extracts of drinking water and effluents from municipal and industrial sewage treatment plants were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with ultraviolet and/or mass spectrometric detection . After column chromatography or flow-injection analysis bypassing the analytical column, ionization was performed by a thermospray interface . Identification of the pollutants was carried out by tandem mass spectrometry, generating daughter-ion spectra by collision-induced dissociation . Most pollutants in drinking water and in the effluents of waste water treatment plants are surface-active compounds of anthropogenic origin or their biochemical degradation products . Difficulties encountered during separation, detection and identification are presented and discussed and techniques for solving these problems are proposed.

Health Phys, 1993 Jul, 65(1), 25 - 32
Environmental monitoring and dose assessment following the December 1991 K-reactor aqueous tritium release; Hamby DM et al.; Between 22 December and 25 December 1991, approximately 570 L of tritiated water was released from the K Reactor at the Savannah River Site . Analyses of river flow rates and measured tritium concentrations showed that approximately 210 TBq of tritium had been released from the reactor and was being transported down the Savannah River . Elevated tritium concentrations in the Savannah River were first detected on 26 December 1991 . The maximum measured tritium concentration at Highway 301 (a major sampling point 37 km downstream of the Savannah River Site) was 2.5 Bq mL-1 . A hypothetical maximum individual located at Highway 301 would have received a drinking water dose of approximately 0.35 microSv, less than 1% of the Environmental Protection Agency's 40 microSv y-1 drinking water standard . Concentrations at the intake canals to two water treatment facilities, approximately 160 km downstream, began to rise above normal on 28 December . The population dose to users of the downstream domestic water supplies and consumers of Savannah River biota was estimated to be 4.7 x 10(-3) person-Sv.

FEMS Microbiol Rev, 1993 Jul, 11(1-3), 153 - 8
Microbial purification technique of mineral dressing plants reject waters; Ghiani M et al.; Earlier investigations on laboratory and pilot plant scale have shown the resort to microorganisms to be a practicable approach to the problem of purifying mineral dressing plant reject waters from residual flotation reagents and/or metal ions . In spite of the proven effectiveness of this method, one major drawback, namely the pathogenicity of some microorganisms, has so far hampered its application on a commercial scale . A research programme, aimed at developing a microbial reject water purification technique utilizing non-pathogenic strains was thus drawn up and is currently being implemented . Strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, which are not harmful to human health, some of them being commonly found in the human intestine, have been successfully tested for removing alkylsulphates, alkylamines and fatty acids from solutions simulating flotation plant tailings waters . Removals as high as 90% in less than 48 h can be easily achieved with no nutrient requirements, since in most cases the flotation reagent residue to be removed is metabolized by the microorganisms themselves.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1993 May, 59(5), 1410 - 5
Distribution of bacteria within operating laboratory water purification systems; McFeters GA et al.; Experiments were conducted to measure communities of bacteria within operating ultrapure water treatment systems intended for laboratory use . Samples from various locations within Milli-Q Plus and Milli-Q UV Plus systems were analyzed for populations of planktonic bacteria at weekly intervals over 3 months of operation . Relatively high initial densities of planktonic bacteria (10(2) to 10(3) bacteria per ml) were seen within both units when they were challenged with source water of poor quality, although the product water continued to be acceptable with regard to bacterial numbers, resistivity, and endotoxin concentration . Under more normal operating conditions, significant differences were seen in planktonic populations throughout the systems with excellent product water quality . A great deal of variability was observed in biofilm populations analyzed from various system surfaces after 3 months of operation . The concentrations of planktonic bacteria and biofilm densities were much lower in the unit containing a UV lamp . These findings suggest that a range of microenvironmental conditions exist within purified water systems, leading to variable populations of bacteria . However, product water of excellent quality was obtained despite the bacterial communities.

J Clin Periodontol, 1993 May, 20(5), 314 - 7
The effect of oral irrigation with a magnetic water treatment device on plaque and calculus; Watt DL et al.; Calculus formation on tooth surfaces is analogous to the formation of lime and scale deposits in plumbing . Magnetic water devices have been shown to significantly reduce scale deposits in industry; therefore an oral irrigator with a magnetic water device may have a similar effect on calculus . To test this hypothesis, a double-blind clinical study was established using 64 irrigators, 30 of which had their magnetic devices removed . 54 patients with heavy supragingival calculus were given irrigators at random after prophylaxis . Instructions were given to irrigate twice a day, particularly the lower 6 anterior teeth . The patients were also told not to floss these 6 teeth which were to be the study teeth . They were examined after 3 months and measurements were taken of the accretions adhering to the study teeth . No attempt was made to determine whether the adhering material was hard or soft so it must be assumed that at least some of the measured material was also plaque . The measurements of the group using an irrigator with a magnetic device showed a 44% greater reduction in calculus volume (p < 0.0005) and a 42% greater reduction in area (p < 0.0001) over the group using an unmagnetized irrigator . There appears to be a statistically significant difference in supragingival accretion volumes between conventional irrigation and using an irrigator with a magnetic water treatment device.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1993 May, 39(1), 121 - 41
Aquatic biomonitoring of reclaimed water for potable use: the San Diego Health Effects Study; de Peyster A et al.; Highly treated reclaimed wastewater was evaluated as a possible supplement to raw water sources required to meet San Diego's growing need for potable water . Biomonitoring experiments employing fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were used to compare reclaimed water with the city's current raw water supply . Juvenile fish were exposed in flow-through aquaria in field laboratories located at the reclamation plant (AQUA II) and at a municipal potable water treatment facility (Miramar) . Biomonitoring measurements were survival and growth, swimming performance, and trace amounts of 68 base/neutral/acid extractable organics, 27 pesticides, and 27 inorganic chemicals found in fish tissues after exposure . Biomonitoring revealed differences in survival, growth, and swimming performance only after 90- and 180-d exposure . Reclaimed water and raw water were not readily distinguishable in 28-d chemical bioaccumulation tests in terms of organic chemical contaminants in fish tissue except for pesticide levels, which tended to be higher in raw water . Similar inorganic species were found in samples from both waters, although there was greater evidence of bioaccumulation of certain contaminants from raw water . Based on biomonitoring parameters included in these experiments, the use of reclaimed water to supplement raw water supplies would appear to pose no major public health threats . The results of these studies will be combined with additional health effects information before final conclusions are reached about the suitability of reclaimed water for human consumption.

Nippon Sanka Fujinka Gakkai Zasshi, 1993 Mar, 45(3), 220 - 6
{A quality control for the culture system using endotoxin assays in human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer}; Nagata Y et al.; The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of endotoxin on human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfers (IVF-ET) and to evaluate a quality control system for a culture medium using endotoxin assays . Before the final water purification (in an ultra-pure water system with a depyrogen filter) of the medium, the sources of water were pre-purified as follows; (I) distillation-->deionization x 2, (II) distillation-->ultra-pure water system or (III) reverse osmosis system . The limulus amebocyte lysate gelation tests (sensitivities of 0.03 and 0.25EU/ml) were used to detect endotoxin in the medium and in pre-purified water (pre-water) . No pregnancies occurred in the endotoxin-positive medium (endotoxin > or = 0.03EU/ml) . The endotoxin-negative medium resulted in a 33.3% pregnancy rate and 13.4% implantation rate . No statistical differences in the implantation rate were found among these methods of pre-purification (I: 12.5%, II: 13.4% and III: 20.0%) . Endotoxin was detected in all the pre-water between 0.25 and 4.0EU/ml . The clinical pregnancy rate (36.6%) and the implantation rate (16.9%) in pre-water of endotoxin < 0.25EU/ml were significantly higher than those (10.5% and 5.5%) in pre-water of endotoxin > or = 0.25EU/ml (p < 0.05) . We confirmed that a very low concentration of endotoxin disturbed a human embryo implantation . Endotoxin assays, not only in the media, but also in pre-water before final purification are useful as a quality control for the IVF-ET program.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1993 Mar, 193(6), 557 - 62
Isolation of Arcobacter butzleri from a drinking water reservoir in eastern Germany; Jacob J et al.; Microaerophilic "campylobacter-like organisms" (CLO) were isolated from a drinking water reservoir in Germany during a period of some months . The strains were characterized by biotyping (API Campy), serotyping and SDS-Disc-gelelectrophoresis as Arcobacter butzleri . Now this facultative humanpathogen species was first described in Germany . With respect to the drinking water treatment, the hygienic importance of the findings is given.

Biull Eksp Biol Med, 1993 Feb, 115(2), 137 - 8
{Hypertensive activity of blood plasma of WKY rats with a calcium deficiency in drinking water}; Churina SK et al.; The effects of low (8.0 mg/l) and normal (80 mg/l) Ca2+ water diets on systolic blood pressure (SBP) and hypertensive plasma activity were studied . At the end of the 16-week experimental period SBP in the low-Ca2+ group of animals was higher than in the control group after the water treatment: 161 sigma 9 and 120 +/- 4 mm Hg respectively . Significant hypertensive plasma activity of the Ca(2+)-deficient rats was noted in all cases . WKY plasma of the rats of normal-Ca2+ group had no significant effect on SBP . Water correction according to the physiologically recommended levels of calcium can prevent the development of arterial hypertension and occurrence of hypertensive plasma activity.

Microbios, 1993, 73(296), 215 - 27
Identification and growth characteristics of pink pigmented oxidative bacteria, Methylobacterium mesophilicum and biovars isolated from chlorinated and raw water supplies; O'Brien JR et al.; Pink pigmented bacteria were isolated from a blood bank water purification unit, a municipal town water supply (tap water), and an island (untreated) ground water source . A total of thirteen strains including two reference strains of pink pigmented bacteria were compared in a numerical phenotypic study using 119 binary characters . Three clusters were derived, one major cluster of eleven strains was subdivided into two sub-clusters on the basis of methanol utilization . Five strains were facultative methylotrophs and were classified as Methylobacterium mesophilicum biovar 1 . The other six strains did not utilize methanol, but on the basis of high phenotypic similarity of 83.6% were classified as M . mesophilicum biovar 2 . The single reference strain comprising cluster 2 Pseudomonas extorquens NCIB 9399 was assigned to the genus Methylobacterium and classified as M . extorquens . Cluster 3 was the single reference strain Rhizobium CB 376.

Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 327 - 33
Sanitary implications associated with the use of eutrophic freshwater; Volterra L; This review presents the problem of eutrophication of lakes whose waters are used also for potable use . The indirect negative impact of algal blooms as well as the direct consequences of the overgrowth of toxic Cyanophyta are considered . Problems for water treatment plants processing eutrophic raw water are exposed . Basic treatment will not easily remove algae or their by-products and increased use of chlorine will give rise to high levels of chlorinated by-products such as THM . Possible alternatives and improvements are suggested for the treatment of poor quality raw water to obtain high quality drinking water.

Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 305 - 11
Some aspects related to the presence of aluminium in waters; Giordano R et al.; Aluminium is present in very small amounts in living organisms but it is abundant in the environment, where it exists in forms with low availability to man and most biological species . Despite its abundance in the earth's crust only a small amount of aluminium is present in waters, with concentrations varying from a few tens to some hundreds of micrograms per liter . High levels of aluminium in drinking water are in most cases due either to acid precipitation or water treatment with aluminium salts . The presence of aluminium in dialysis fluids has been recognized as the major reason for development of aluminium toxicity in patients with renal failure . In subjects with normal renal function, high concentrations of this element in drinking water (> 80 micrograms/l) have been related to an elevated incidence of Alzheimer's disease, even though the real contribution of the element in the development of the disease has not yet been clarified.

Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1993, 29(2), 253 - 62
The groundwater pollution in Lombardy (north Italy) caused by organo-halogenated compounds; Berbenni P et al.; This paper deals with the phenomenon of the presence of organo-halogenated compounds in groundwaters of the Lombardy Region (North Italy) . The regionwide study evidentiated the magnitude of the phenomenon, since these compounds are employed in all productive and household activities . The main cause of groundwater contamination is the infiltration of industrial wastewater: in the Province of Mantova, for example, organic chlorinated solvents have their origin in the NaOCl wastewater treatment for ammonia removal . Organic alogenated compounds in waters intended for human consumption in Lombardy are present in 510 wells over 92 townships, affecting a population of 1,934,133 equivalent to 20% of the total resident population (1991 data) . Maximum observed concentrations are related to trielin and tetrachloroethilene . Water treatment was achieved through aeration (stripping) and activated carbon or resin adsorption; in a few instances, also hydraulic interventions were implemented.

Sci Total Environ, 1993, Suppl Pt 1, 787 - 90
The use of in vitro fertilization in the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay in Xenopus (FETAX) and its applications to ecotoxicology; Vismara C et al.; The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay in Xenopus (FETAX) is a powerful assay for the presence of developmental toxicants in the environment that uses Xenopus embryos . We have applied the test to evaluate a water purification system by testing and comparing the input and the output waters.

Klin Med (Mosk), 1993 Jan, 71(1), 33 - 6
{Some aspects of current treatment of patients with terminal chronic renal insufficiency}; Burtsev VI et al.; Two groups of patients with terminal chronic renal failure (TCRF) treated from 1970 to 1979 (group 1) and in 1980-1989 (group 2) have been compared in respect to treatment results . All the patients underwent programmed hemodialysis performed on different equipment and according to different regimens . The results of group 2 appeared better: the lethality decreased by 18%, mean survival from 6 months to 4.5 years, up to half of the patients were able to receive hemodialysis procedures outpatiently, 30% of the patients were prepared to receive a renal transplant . The above positive shifts were achieved due to utilization of updated equipment, improved water purification, 3-stage technique of hemodialysis, antianemic drug eprex and vanalpha against osteodystrophy.

Carcinogenesis, 1992 Dec, 13(12), 2277 - 80
Influence of fruit and vegetable juices on the endogenous formation of N-nitrosoproline and N-nitrosothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid in humans on controlled diets; Helser MA et al.; Water, green pepper, pineapple, tomato, strawberry, carrot, and celery juices were made 46 mg/100 ml in ascorbic acid by the addition of distilled water or ascorbate . The ability of each juice to inhibit endogenous formation of N-nitrosoamino acids (NAA) in humans was determined in controlled experiments . Sixteen men consumed a standard diet low in nitrate and ascorbic acid for 18 consecutive days . Nitrate (5.24 mmol) and L-proline (4.35 mmol) were given orally on days 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 and 18 . On days 3 and 18, L-proline was immediately followed by 100 ml distilled water (positive control) . On days 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17, L-proline was immediately followed by 100 ml juice or 46 mg ascorbate in 100 ml distilled water (treatment) . Only diet was given in between dosing days to ensure baseline levels of NAA excretion . Urine was collected for 24 h following treatments and analyzed for NAA . Green pepper, pineapple, tomato, strawberry and carrot treatments significantly inhibited N-nitrosoproline (NPRO) formation relative to the positive control . Also, green pepper, pineapple and tomato juices significantly inhibited NPRO formation relative to ascorbic acid alone . Green pepper significantly inhibited N-nitrosothiazolidine-carboxylic acid formation relative to ascorbic acid alone . These data demonstrate that green pepper, tomato, pineapple, strawberry and carrot juice have greater ability to inhibit endogenous nitrosation than would be expected based solely on their ascorbate content.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1992 Dec, 37(4), 483 - 94
Mutagens in urine sampled repetitively from municipal refuse incinerator workers and water treatment workers; Ma XF et al.; Municipal refuse incinerator workers may be exposed to mutagenic compounds from combustion gases and particulates during plant operation, maintenance, and ash removal procedures . The frequency of mutagens was measured by the Ames assay in 3 urine samples collected from each of 37 workers in 4 refuse incinerators and 35 (control) workers from 8 water treatment plants during June-August 1990 . When comparing the first urine samples contributed by workers in each cohort, incinerator workers had a significantly (p < .05) increased risk of both direct-acting mutagens and promutagens (8/37 or 22% for each mutagen type) compared with water treatment workers (2/35 or 6% for each mutagen type) . Smoking within 24 h before urine sampling was not a confounder of these results . Interestingly, there was no significant (p > .05) difference for risk of urinary mutagens or promutagens between the two cohorts when comparing, respectively, the second and third urine samples from each cohort . The repeatability of demonstrating urinary mutagens in individual incinerator workers was poor, suggesting that their exposure was highly variable and/or that these workers modified their exposure (e.g., wore masks) as a consequence of being studied . Factors that influence production of mutagenic compounds during refuse incineration and subsequent worker exposure are discussed.

Eur J Med, 1992 Dec, 1(8), 482 - 4
Level-dependent inhibitory effect of hyperaluminaemia on parathyroid hormone secretion in patients with end-stage renal failure; Fernandez E et al.; OBJECTIVES: Serum aluminium and parathyroid hormone levels were measured in chronic dialysis patients at discovery of accidental exposure to high dialysate aluminium levels and followed after adequate water purification . PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-nine patients with chronic renal failure on maintenance haemodialysis were accidently exposed to dialysate aluminium levels of 65 micrograms/L (recommended Food and Drug Administration values less than 10 micrograms/L) for 18 months . At discovery, oral aluminium was withdrawn and dialysate aluminium levels were corrected to less than 5 micrograms/L . Serum aluminium, parathyroid hormone, calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase levels were determined at discovery and two months and one year after the corrective measures . RESULTS: Mean serum aluminium level was 167.6 +/- 15 micrograms/L at discovery and simultaneous serum parathyroid levels were 7.9 +/- 2.2 pmol/L (normal values 1.1 to 4.6 pmol/L) . Two months after discontinuation of oral aluminium and correction of dialysate aluminium levels to less than 5 micrograms/L, the patients' mean serum aluminium dropped to 49.6 +/- 4.3 micrograms/L and simultaneous serum parathyroid hormone levels rose to 14.6 +/- 3.2-pmol/L (p < 0.001) . Similar levels were maintained at one year . Serum calcium did not change significantly . There was a significant correlation between the drop in serum aluminium and the increase in parathyroid hormone . CONCLUSION: These results confirm animal experiments and show convincingly that aluminium inhibits parathyroid secretion also in humans.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1992 Dec, 24(3), 319 - 27
Simple method to prolong the closed bottle test for the determination of the inherent biodegradability; van Ginkel CG et al.; A method to prolong the closed bottle test up to 200 days is described and validated . This prolonged closed bottle test has been used to determine the biodegradability of "recalcitrant" and toxic organic compounds . The results obtained in the prolonged closed bottle test are in accordance with those mentioned in the literature on biodegradation of organic compounds in waste water purification plants and on the isolation of microorganisms capable of utilizing these compounds as carbon and energy source . Furthermore, this test may prevent discrepancies and unexplainable results obtained in a 28-day test . The test has the potential to be used as an inherent biodegradability test when recognized by the authorities.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Nov, 58(11), 3494 - 500
Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental pressures; Robertson LJ et al.; The survival of various isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under a range of environmental pressures including freezing, desiccation, and water treatment processes and in physical environments commonly associated with oocysts such as feces and various water types was monitored . Oocyst viability was assessed by in vitro excystation and by a viability assay based on the exclusion or inclusion of two fluorogenic vital dyes . Although desiccation was found to be lethal, a small proportion of oocysts were able to withstand exposure to temperatures as low as -22 degrees C . The water treatment processes investigated did not affect the survival of oocysts when pH was corrected . However, contact with lime, ferric sulfate, or alum had a significant impact on oocyst survival if the pH was not corrected . Oocysts demonstrated longevity in all water types investigated, including seawater, and when in contact with feces were considered to develop an enhanced impermeability to small molecules which might increase the robustness of the oocysts when exposed to environmental pressures.

Ann Emerg Med, 1992 Nov, 21(11), 1303 - 7
Effects of isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, and polyethylene glycol/industrial methylated spirits in the treatment of acute phenol burns; Hunter DM et al.; STUDY OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of water rinse with those of isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, or ethanol on cutaneous phenol burns . DESIGN: Controlled trial with all animals receiving all treatments applied to different cutaneous phenol burn sites . TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS: Swine weighing 9 to 18 kg . INTERVENTIONS: In phase 1, each burn site was treated with water rinse for zero, one, or five minutes combined with either isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, ethanol, or no other treatment . Biopsies of treatment sites were done at 30 minutes and at 48 hours . In phase 2, a pilot study, the effect of isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits, or water treatment on serum phenol levels was noted in animals with 5%, 10%, and 15% body surface area burns . MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: In phase 1, on histological examination of biopsy specimens, significant differences in tissue damage occurred among the groups (P < .05) . Isopropyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits were the most efficacious treatments; the duration of water rinse had no significant effect . In phase 2, the systemic absorption of phenol may be greater with water treatment than with isopropyl alcohol treatment . CONCLUSION: Isopropyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol with industrial methylated spirits are equally effective in the amelioration of phenol burns of less than 5% total surface area . The wider availability of isopropyl alcohol makes it potentially the most useful treatment for these small burns . Further studies of its risks are needed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Sep, 58(9), 3136 - 41
Rates of inactivation of waterborne coliphages by monochloramine; Dee SW et al.; A sophisticated water quality monitoring program was established to evaluate virus removal through Denver's 1-million-gal (ca . 4-million-liter)/day Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant . As a comparison point for the reuse demonstration plant, Denver's main water treatment facility was also monitored for coliphage organisms . Through the routine monitoring of the main plant, it was discovered that coliphage organisms were escaping the water treatment processes . Monochloramine residuals and contact times (CT values) required to achieve 99% inactivation were determined for coliphage organisms entering and leaving this conventional water treatment plant . The coliphage tested in the effluent waters had higher CT values on the average than those of the influent waters . CT values established for some of these coliphages suggest that monochloramine alone is not capable of removing 2 orders of magnitude of these specific organisms in a typical water treatment facility . Electron micrographs revealed one distinct type of phage capable of escaping the water treatment processes and three distinct types of phages in all.

Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo, 1992 Sep-Oct, 34(5), 459 - 66
{The use of the shell of the cashew nut, Anacardium occidentale, as an alternative molluscacide}; de Souza CP et al.; Bioassays using hexanolic extracts of cashew nut shells, of Anacardium occidentale, collected in Ceara in 1972 (Sample 1) and 1987 (Sample 2) were undertaken with adult snails and egg masses of Biomphalaria glabrata, B . tenagophila and B . straminea both in the laboratory and in the field . Non extracted shells, 18.5 g, sample 1, were also tested with adult snails and egg masses of the three species . The toxicity of extract was tested with fish (Poecilia reticulata) and tadpoles . The lethal concentration, CL90, of sample 1 was from 2.0 to 2.2 ppm for adult snails of the three species . With sample 2, the CL90 was 2.0, 0.5 and 30.0 ppm for B . glabrata adults, newly hatched snails and egg mass respectively . Non extracted shells caused 40-80% mortality of adult snails, 22-35% mortality of embryos and 40-55% reduction of egg production . The hexanolic extract, sample 2, were innocuous for tadpole and fish at 2 ppm . In the field, in pools of still water treatment with 20 ppm of extract, sample 1, caused a 97.1% mortality of B . straminea and 100% mortality of B . glabrata and B . tenagophila . Using Niclosamide, at 3 ppm, 100% mortality of the three species occurred.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Aug, 58(8), 2420 - 5
Relationship between Legionella pneumophila and Acanthamoeba polyphaga: physiological status and susceptibility to chemical inactivation; Barker J et al.; Survival studies were conducted on Legionella pneumophila cells that had been grown intracellularly in Acanthamoeba polyphaga and then exposed to polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB), benzisothiazolone (BIT), and 5-chloro-N-methylisothiazolone (CMIT) . Susceptibilities were also determined for L . pneumophila grown under iron-sufficient and iron-depleted conditions . BIT was relatively ineffective against cells grown under iron depletion; in contrast, iron-depleted conditions increased the susceptibilities of cells to PHMB and CMIT . The activities of all three biocides were greatly reduced against L . pneumophila grown in amoebae . PHMB (1 x MIC) gave 99.99% reductions in viability for cultures grown in broth within 6 h and no detectable survivors at 24 h but only 90 and 99.9% killing at 6 h and 24 h, respectively, for cells grown in amoebae . The antimicrobial properties of the three biocides against A . polyphaga were also determined . The majority of amoebae recovered from BIT treatment, but few, if any, survived CMIT treatment or exposure to PHMB . This study not only shows the profound effect that intra-amoebal growth has on the physiological status and antimicrobial susceptibility of L . pneumophila but also reveals PHMB to be a potential biocide for effective water treatment . In this respect, PHMB has significant activity, below its recommended use concentrations, against both the host amoeba and L . pneumophila.

Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 1992 Jul, 99(7), 295 - 7
{Environmental and food hygiene aspects of cestode infections of humans}; Ring C; Cysticercus bovis s . inermis, the larvae phase of Taenia saginata is still widely spread . Many reasons are at the origin thereof, e.g . incomplete destruction of the eggs of Taenia saginata during the waste water purification process and differing meat inspection practises . In an area with the same environmental and animal breeding and fattening conditions a yearly average of 6.49% infestation is found in one slaughterhouse, whilst the yearly average in a neighbouring slaughterhouse is 0.93% . The masseter muscles are the main site of infestation . The meat inspection legislation contributes to the infestation with tape-worms in man because of the weakening of the official inspection procedures.

ASAIO J, 1992 Jul-Sep, 38(3), M334 - 7
Use of bone char as an adsorbent in preparation of water for dialysis; Muirhead N et al.; Currently, deionizers (DI) and reverse osmosis (RO) are used to prepare water for dialysis . When water metal levels increase, for example, with the use of alum, the variation in metal content can reduce RO performance . Pretreatment of water with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid or alkali can be used to reduce Al fouling . The authors examined adsorption of metal water contaminants with bone char (BRIMAC, Biolab, Oakville, Canada) as a cheaper alternative . Water treatment for the unit consists of a blend valve, 30 mu filter, 2 X 3 cu ft adsorption tanks, 5 mu filter, 30,000 grain automatic water softener, 5 mu filter, Millipore RO 1,000, 2 X 7" mixed bed DI in series, and a polysulfone ultrafilter . During 29 weeks of continuous bone char adsorption, raw water Al ranged from 0.022 to 0.298 ppm (mean, 0.097 +/- 0.075 ppm; cf . the Environmental Protection Agency's proposed drinking water standard of < 0.05 ppm) . Postadsorption Al ranged from 0.002 to 0.076 ppm (0.041 +/- 0.04), a decrease of 55-91% (83.0 +/- 8.5%) . Final water Al was < 0.001 at all times . No fouling of the RO membrane occurred . Residual chlorine after the first adsorption was < 0.02 to 0.09 ppm . Significant reductions in other metals, notably Pb, Cu, and Zn were noted . Bone char is a cheap, effective, and simple alternative for removing excess trace elements from water for hemodialysis . Further study to evaluate the efficacy of bone char in removing other organic and inorganic water contaminants is needed.

J Microencapsul, 1992 Jul-Sep, 9(3), 287 - 307
An investigation of internal phase losses during the microencapsulation of fragrances; Flores RJ et al.; Prototype fragrances, prepared from common fragrance components, were extracted with water, recovered, and characterized by gas chromatography before and after the water treatment, revealing a significant loss of the more water-soluble components . Unextracted prototype fragrances were also microencapsulated by a gelatin/gum arabic coacervation process . The microencapsulated fragrance oils were recovered from the microcapsules, using pepsin enzyme to open up the capsules . Comparison of GC results of microencapsulated fragrance oil versus unencapsulated oil showed many of the changes could be ascribed to solubility losses of the more water-soluble components to the process water . Deliberate inclusion of toluene as a fragrance component in one of the prototype fragrances showed that some losses of highly volatile fragrance components can be expected during microencapsulation; but because most fragrance components do not approach the volatility of toluene, such losses are expected to be minimal . Chromatograms taken before and after microencapsulation of two commercial fragrances are discussed.

Tuber Lung Dis, 1992 Jun, 73(3), 141 - 4
Occurrence of mycobacteria in biofilm samples; Schulze-Robbecke R et al.; The occurrence of mycobacteria was studied in 50 biofilm samples from water treatment plants, domestic water supply systems and aquaria . Mycobacteria were found in 90% of the samples and their densities usually ranged between 10(3) and 10(4) cfu/cm2 (maximum density 5.6 x 10(6) cfu/cm2) . Organic substances such as plastics and rubber were usually colonized by larger numbers of mycobacteria than inorganic substances such as copper and glass . The highest mycobacterial densities were found on plastic surfaces which were continuously perfused with water at temperatures between 22 and 30 degrees C . The species identified include Mycobacterium chelonae, M . flavescens, M . fortuitum, M . gordonae, M . kansasii, and M . terrae/nonchromogenicum . The occurrence in microcolonies indicate that biofilms may be an important replication site of aquatic mycobacteria.

Sci Total Environ, 1992 May 30, 117-118, 531 - 41
Biodegradation of aquatic organic matter with reference to drinking water treatment; Huck PM et al.; This paper presents results obtained in a pilot scale investigation of biological treatment for preparation of drinking water from the North Saskatchewan River at Edmonton, Canada . Although the concentration of natural organic matter (NOM) in the raw water varied substantially over the study period, parameters measuring the biodegradability and reactivity to chlorine of the NOM were closely correlated to the NOM concentration . As a result of treatment including ozonation and adsorption, two patterns of response emerged . Some parameters decreased through each step of the treatment process while others usually increased following ozonation and then decreased through subsequent steps . The levels of this latter group were decreased by biological activity in the filters (except for one treatment stream) and further reduced in the biologically active granular activated carbon (GAC) contactors.

Sci Total Environ, 1992 May 15, 116(3), 203 - 11
Accumulation of copper, lead, manganese and iron by field populations of Hydrodictyon reticulatum (Linn.) Lagerheim; Rai UN et al.; The potential of 'water-net' Hydrodictyon reticulatum to accumulate copper, lead, manganese and iron was determined in seven polluted water bodies having different physicochemical characteristics . The lead accumulation was linearly related with ambient concentration whereas in case of copper, manganese and iron it was maximum at lowest ambient level of metals . Investigations on response of alga to various concentrations of test metals under single metal treatments revealed that the algal cells are saturated at high equilibrium concentration of greater than 0.5 (lead), greater than 2.5 (copper and iron) and greater than 5.0 (manganese) mg/l . Alkaline pH favoured accumulation of these metals under field conditions . Alga showed high concentration factor (Cf) for all the metals both under field and laboratory conditions . However, Cf value was higher in case of manganese and iron in natural populations . Results indicate the possibility of using this alga in waste water treatment programmes.

Am J Forensic Med Pathol, 1992 Mar, 13(1), 72 - 5
Dirty diving . Sudden death of a SCUBA diver in a water treatment facility; Nichols GR 2nd et al.; We report a case of a sudden death in a SCUBA diver working at a water treatment facility . The victim, an employee of the facility with a specialty in electronics, was a sport diver not qualified in commercial diving . While attempting to clean sludge from a blocked drain 25 ft under water, the diver was suddenly pinned against the drain valve when the sludge plug was broken up . We review the mechanics of the incident and the actual cause of death, asphyxia, as opposed to drowning . We believe this to be the first reported case of traumatic (pressure) asphyxia in a SCUBA diver.

BMJ, 1992 Feb 22, 304(6825), 455 - 6
Health problems in Iraq; Acheson ED; PIP: Iraq is faced with large scale public health problems that have been caused by the destruction to their infrastructure during the Gulf war . Humanitarian aid is needed in order to avoid a large scale human disaster . In 1988 73% of Iraq's population lived in urban areas . The loss of electrical generating capacity has affected hospitals, water purification and sewage treatment . Iraq had made great strides int he health of their people with an infant mortality rate of 42/1000 in 1990 and 52./1000 for children under 5 . The international study team's survey of over 9000 households revealed surprising evidence of widespread chronic malnutrition . Based on accepted mortality as a baseline, data suggests that mortality among Iraqi infants and children under 5 doubled in 1991 . The current food ration provides only half of the energy requirement and with rapidly accelerating inflation, the cost of food while only make the situation worse . The UN Disaster Relief Office has received $1.059 billion from donor countries; but, only half of the requested $14 million has been funded through Unicef . This money is needed to meet basic requirements for water, sanitation, antibiotics, and vaccines . The UN Security Council approved resolutions 706 and 712 which would have allowed Iraq to sell $1.6 billion for foodstuffs, medicines, and materials and supplies necessary to civilian needs subject to monitoring and supervision to ensure equitable distribution . The Iraqi government has not met the requirements of 706 and 712 because of the monitoring conditions, so no money has been issued . More money is needed if humanitarian organizations are to do their work . Only $29 million of the $145 million needed for the 1st half of this year has been pledged .

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1992 Feb, 58(2), 686 - 9
Disinfection of drinking water by using a novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes; Matsunaga T et al.; A novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes was constructed for disinfection of drinking water . Escherichia coli K-12 (10(2) cells per cm3) was sterilized when a cell suspension was passed through the reactor at a dilution rate of 6.0 h-1, and a potential of 0.7 V versus a saturated calomel electrode was applied to an electrode . The survival ratio increased with increasing dilution rate but was less than 0.1% at dilution rates of less than 6.0 h-1 . Although the survival ratio increased with increasing cell concentration above 10(3) cells per cm3, the disinfection rate also increased . The disinfection rate was 6.0 x 10(2) cells per cm3 per h at a cell concentration of 10(2) cells per cm3 . Continuous sterilization of E . coli cells was carried out for 24 h . Sterilization is based on an electrochemical reaction between the electrode and the cell which is mediated by intracellular coenzyme A . Sterilization of drinking water by using this reactor was successfully performed, demonstrating the potential of such a reactor for clean and efficient water purification.

ANNA J, 1992 Feb, 19(1), 41 - 3, 87
Hazards with disinfecting agents in renal units!
Stragier A.
As already described in the April 1991 issue of EDTNA/ERCA Journal (Volume XVII, No . 2), the specific characteristics of various disinfecting agents delineate their respective application areas . Obviously, in a renal unit one needs a large range of disinfecting agents as they are being used for cleaning and disinfection of: water treatment devices; water tanks and distribution systems; single patient units; patient vascular access sites; dialysis connection procedure; dialyser reuse; instruments; floors, etc... . We have been taught never to mix different disinfecting agents as this might reduce their efficiency . However, it had never been hitherto reported that this might be dangerous or even cause an explosion! In this paper, we describe in detail how we were confronted with such an explosion . We further report that similar hazards occurred in other units and present an overview of possible hazards with the most common disinfecting agents . Finally, we emphasize some preventive guidelines to be put forth in renal units.

Zentralbl Mikrobiol, 1992, 147(3-4), 231 - 5
{The occurrence of aeromonads in a drinking water supply system}; Stelzer W et al.; This study concerns with the occurrence of aeromonads, coliforms and colony counts in a drinking water supply . Aeromonas contents were detected in the range of 15.0 to greater than 2,400/100 ml in the raw water samples of the man made lake . After the drinking water treatment process including fast sand filtration and chlorination aeromonads indicated in comparison to total coliforms and colony counts early and significant an after-growth of maximal 240 aeromonads/100 ml in the peripheric drinking water supply . Drinking water samples characterized by a higher water temperature resulted in the highest contents of aeromonads . The Aeromonas-Species Aeromonas sobria and Aeromonas hydrophila were isolated most frequently with 56.9 and 37.4 percent, respectively . The role of aeromonads as an indicator of after-growth in drinking water supplies is discussed.

Can J Microbiol, 1992 Jan, 38(1), 34 - 7
Bacteria that degrade p-chlorophenol isolated from a continuous culture system; Kramer CM et al.; Two Gram-positive coryneform bacteria that degraded p-chlorophenol isolated from a continuous culture system are characterized . Isolate B (probably and Arthrobacter sp.) completely removed the p-chlorophenol from a medium with a concomitant increase in cell density within 16 h . Isolate F similarly removed the p-chlorophenol within 28 h but without an increase in cell density . Isolates B and F also removed the p-chlorophenol from a medium with p-chlorophenol as the sole carbon source within 32 and 48 h, respectively . The optimal temperature for p-chlorophenol degradation by both organisms was 25 to 30 degrees C . The optimal pH range for p-chlorophenol degradation was pH 7-9 for isolate B and pH 8-9 for isolate F . Since these native environmental bacteria can degrade p-chlorophenol, they may have an important application in waste water treatment processes.

J Air Waste Manage Assoc, 1992 Jan, 42(1), 96 - 103
EPA SITE demonstration of the BioTrol soil washing process; Stinson MK et al.; A pilot-scale soil washing process, patented by BioTrol, Inc., was demonstrated on soil contaminated by wood treating waste, primarily pentachlorophenol (PCP) and creosote-derived polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) . Although soil washing was the main object of this demonstration, the treatment train that was evaluated included two other BioTrol technologies for treatment of waste streams from the soil washer . The three technologies were: The BioTrol Soil Washer (BSW)--a volume reduction process, which uses water to separate contaminated soil fractions from the bulk of the soil . The BioTrol Aqueous Treatment System (BATS)--a biological water treatment process . The Slurry Bioreactor (SBR)--a BioTrol biological slurry treatment process conducted in an EIMCO BIOLIFT reactor . The sandy soil at the site, consisting of less than 10 percent of fines, was well suited for treatment by soil washing . The soil washer was evaluated in two tests on soil samples containing 130 ppm and 680 ppm of PCP, respectively . The BSW successfully separated the feed soil (dry weight basis) into 83 percent of washed soil, 10 percent of woody residues, and 7 percent of fines . The washed soil retained about 10 percent of the feed soil contamination while 90 percent of the feed soil contamination was contained within the woody residues, fines, and process water . The soil washer achieved up to 89 percent removal of PCP and 88 percent of total PAHs, based on the difference between their levels in the as-is (wet) feed soil and the washed soil.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Poult Sci, 1992 Jan, 71(1), 88 - 97
Performance and immunity of heat-stressed broilers fed vitamin- and electrolyte-supplemented drinking water; Ferket PR et al.; The efficacy of different vitamin and electrolyte treatments of drinking water for heat-stressed broilers was studied in two experiments . In Experiment 1, commercial broilers (50% male, 50% female, sexed), were subjected to four drinking water treatments: 1) unsupplemented water (control); 2) B-vitamins plus electrolytes (B+E1); 3) vitamins A, D, and E, B-vitamins plus electrolytes (ADEB+E1); and 4) vitamins A, D, and E and B-vitamins (ADEB) . Each treatment group was replicated in eight pens containing 70 birds . All birds were provided ad libitum access to feed through to 43 days of age and subjected to the water treatment from 16 to 21 days and 38 to 43 days . The birds were exposed to the 35 C ambient temperature during the last 72 h of each period . Immune function was tested on the males in each pen while they received the water treatments from 24 to 34 days of age . In comparison with the control, feed conversion was improved 5.6% by ADEB+E1 and ADEB, and body weight gain was improved 6.7% by ADEB (P less than .05) . Total and IgG antibody response against SRBC after primary immunization was improved by B+E1; whereas, B+E1 and ADEB treatments improved IgG after secondary immunization . The highest numbers of Sephadex-elicited peritoneal macrophages were found among ADEB-treated birds, but neither adherence nor phagocytic ability of macrophages from either group was affected . Natural killer cells from all except ADEB+E1-treated birds exhibited comparably high tumoricidal activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig, 1992, 43(1), 95 - 100
{Occurrence of aquatic organisms in water pipes and the resulting problems with drinking water disinfection}; Plachta J et al.; The present text is the first part of a paper aimed at specification of the requirements ensuring effective disinfection of drinking water . The discussed health hazards result not only from the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in water, but also from the occurrence of micro- and macroscopic plant and animal organisms . It was shown that while the traditional method for water treatment and disinfection reduces the number of these organisms, it fails to eliminate them completely, particularly in the case of tap water intake from shore intakes of surface waters.

Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1992, 65(5), 445 - 51
Fluid replacement beverages and maintenance of plasma volume during exercise: role of aldosterone and vasopressin; Criswell D et al.; Previous experiments have demonstrated that consumption of a glucose polymer-electrolyte (GP-E) beverage is superior to water in minimizing exercise-induced decreases in plasma volume (PV) . We tested the hypothesis that elevated plasma concentrations of vasopressin and/or aldosterone above that seen with water ingestion may explain this observation . Six trained cyclists performed 115 min of constant-load exercise (approximately 65% of maximal oxygen consumption) on a cycle ergometer on two occasions with 7 days separating experiments . Ambient conditions were maintained relatively constant for both exercise tests (29-30 degrees C; 58-66% relative humidity) . During each experiment, subjects consumed 400 ml of one of the following beverages 20 min prior to exercise and 275 ml immediately prior to and every 15 min during exercise: (1) distilled water or (2) GP-E drink contents = 7% carbohydrate (glucose polymers and fructose; 9 mmol.l-1 sodium; 5 mmol.l-1 potassium; osmolality 250 mosmol.l-1) . No significant difference (P > 0.05) existed in mean skin temperature, rectal temperature, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production or the respiratory exchange ratio between treatments . Further, no significant differences existed in plasma osmolality and plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride or magnesium between treatments . Plasma volume was better maintained (P < 0.05) in the GP-E trial at 90 and 120 min of exercise when compared to the water treatment . No differences existed in plasma levels of vasopressin or aldosterone between treatments at any measurement period . Further, the correlation coefficients between plasma concentrations of vasopressin and aldosterone and change in PV during exercise were 0.42 (P < 0.05) and 0.16 (P > 0.05), respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg, 1992, 54(3), 179 - 85; discussion 185-8
{Water quality}; Ringoir S; The quality of water is more and more important in the polluted world of today . The nephrologist is with his patients a great consumer of water; water for dialysis should be of the highest quality as each maintenance dialysis patient uses up to 150 liters 3 times per week for years, in direct contact with his blood through a very thin dialysis membrane . Water may be polluted at the collection-, treatment- or distribution centers or locally at the place of consumption . Aluminum, chloramine, pesticides, copper, herbicides and many other substances as well as bacteria, may be found in water . For these reasons the nephrologist uses a series of devices to clean or purify the water before use in his dialysis unit: softeners, de-ionisators, reverse-osmosis, charcoal filters, ultraviolet irradiation, a.o . A correct water circuit is important as well, as dead spaces could cause bacterial contamination . The ultra pure water has to be mixed before use in the dialyzer, with a concentrated electrolyte solution . The author discusses all these different aspects of water treatment in the particular situation of hemodialysis.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1991 Dec, 192(4), 287 - 323
{The hygienic situation of the central drinking water supply in the former East Germany--an evaluation of the annual reports on water hygiene from 1984 to 1989}; Schlosser FU et al.; In the former GDR an annual report on the situation in the field of communal hygiene had to be elaborated and submitted to the minister of public health . One part of this was the report on the hygienic situation in water supply, worked out by the Reference Laboratory for Water Hygiene in Bad Elster . After the political changes in autumn 1989 it became possible to analyse these reports as a whole . In this paper the reports from 1984 to 1989 are interpreted . The results of the laboratory measurements and field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorates are shown in 17 graphics and compared to the bacteriological and chemical limits in drinking water standards . Special issue is drawn on the estimation of the number of inhabitants concerned by reduced drinking-water quality or any hazardous situations . The special problems of the different districts are compared in some graphics . The hygienic safety of the central drinking-water supply units is assessed basing on the results of the field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorate . The Sanitation of the central drinking-water supply facilities in the new federal countries of the FRG is connected with the solution of a variety of technological problems, particularly the improvement of the water treatment techniques and the restoration of the pipe systems . The use of surface waters from extremely polluted rivers generates a high hygienic risk and requires the sanitation of the rivers . The high number of existing protection zones in the catchment areas for drinking-water is a valuable precondition to ensure the hygienic safety of the drinking-water supply in the new federal countries.

Ann Soc Belg Med Trop, 1991 Dec, 71(4), 279 - 85
{Evaluation of the efficacy of temephos in the campaign against dracunculosis}; Chippaux JP et al.; Efficacy of water source treatment with temephos 200 EC had been tested with three methods after treatment of a natural reservoir in a temporary river bed . 1 . Residual pesticide in water treatment was measured with a biological test based on the pesticide toxicity on mosquito larvae from a laboratory stock for which the standard LD50 for the considered pesticide is stable and accurately known . After pesticide treatment, samples of the treated source water were taken . 30 larvae were placed in 200 ml of the treated water either pure or diluted in untreated water (ten dilutions tested) . The mortality rate of larvae after 24 hours was observed and marked on a probit scale . The LD50 was read directly from the curve . The corresponding dilution of the water sample that contained one standard LD50 was expressed in mg.l-1, using the value of the standard LD50 . This method was found reproducible and sensitive (up to 0.001 p.p.m.), depending on the value of the standard LD50 . 2 . Lethality of cyclopides was measured by numeration of survivals in 10 liters samples and compared to the natural population of a close untreated water reservoir in the higher part of the same river . Results showed that half-life of temephos was shorter than 3 days and the concentration corresponding to the LD50 for cyclopides was reached a week after treatment . Two or three weeks after treatment the cyclopide population was significant and further pesticide application was needed . 3 . Decrease of incidence of dracunculiasis was compiled by weekly examination of the population during the season of transmission . Authors observed an incidence of 37% during the 86/87 season.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

ASAIO Trans, 1991 Oct-Dec, 37(4), 588 - 91
Illness in hemodialysis patients after exposure to chloramine contaminated dialysate; Tipple MA et al.; In September 1987, patients at an outpatient dialysis center were exposed to chloramine contaminated dialysate when the carbon filter in a recently modified water treatment system failed . Forty-one patients required transfusion to treat the resultant hemolytic anemia . Epidemiologic investigation demonstrated that the mortality rate among dialysis center patients increased during the 5 months after chloramine exposure when compared with the 12 months before chloramine exposure, but no deaths could be attributed to the exposure . Chloramine is commonly used as a disinfectant in municipal water supplies, and has previously been reported to cause hemolytic anemia in patients undergoing dialysis . Hemodialysis centers in cities that use chloramine in water supplies must design water treatment systems with adequate means for removing chloramine and must monitor processed water closely to ensure that chloramine contamination does not occur . Dialysis centers that make changes in their water processing systems should evaluate all components of the system before changes are made, and must ensure that after modifications are made, processed water meets the standards set by the Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation.

Arch Fr Pediatr, 1991 Oct, 48(8), 555 - 7
{Erythermalgia: a rare vascular acrosyndrome}; H'Mila R et al.; A case of erythermalgia with arterial hypertension that appeared in a 13 year-old boy is described . This condition led to a loss of weight of 10 kg within one month . None of the diseases known as a cause of this rare condition was found . Clinical manifestations were only improved when extremities were placed in cold water: treatment with pizotifene was also effective suggesting the role of serotonine in the mechanism of the crises.

Rev Environ Health, 1991 Oct-Dec, 9(4), 215 - 28
Acrylamide and polyacrylamide: a review of production, use, environmental fate and neurotoxicity; Smith EA et al.; Acrylamide is a highly water soluble vinyl monomer formed from the hydration of acrylonitrile . The major commercial use of acrylamide is the formation of polymers . In the environment acrylamide has a high mobility in soil, may travel great distances in ground-water, is biodegradable, and is not absorbed by sediments or affected by water treatment . It is absorbed by all routes of animal exposure . The main metabolite is N-acetyl-S-(3-amino-3-oxypropyl)-cysteine and is excreted predominantly in the urine . Acrylamide produces an ascending central/peripheral axonopathy in man and animals . The major histological findings are swelling of axons and/or decrease in number of large diameter axons . Acrylamide axonopathy is reversible with time, but full recovery depends upon the severity of the intoxication . All reported cases of acrylamide toxicity have been attributed to handling the monomer . Polyacrylamide is non-toxic . Specific clinical features of acrylamide intoxication are more conclusive than electrophysiological, histological or biochemical laboratory tests for diagnosis . Acrylamide can be detected by titration, colorimetry, high performance chromatography, gas chromatography and polarography in air, water, biological fluids, tissues and polyacrylamides . Present research on the effects of acrylamide focuses on developmental and reproductive effects, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity.

ASDC J Dent Child, 1991 Sep-Oct, 58(5), 405 - 8
Water purification systems and recommendations for fluoride supplementation; Glass RG; In communities that do not fluoridate water supplies, or homes that have fluoride removed from their water, fluoride supplementation may be necessary . The AAPD guide is reviewed, with dosage recommendations provided . Water purifications are described and reviewed . Dentists should ask their patients about their drinking water.

Poult Sci, 1991 Sep, 70(9), 2002 - 5
Research note: effect of electronic treatment of drinking water on growth performance of broiler chickens; Zimmermann NG et al.; Three electronic devices used to treat drinking water were compared with untreated city well water in a broiler growth performance trial . In each treatment feed conversion and BW were measured in 16 replicate pens of 60 female broilers at 29, 42, and 49 days of age . Two of the devices increased dissolved oxygen content of the water and reduced conductivity and microorganism count . One of these reduced broiler mortality (P = .065), decreased pH (P = .062), and increased Fe and Mn concentration in the water . The other increased water temperature, Ti, and Mn but reduced the concentration of Cl, Al, Ca, Cr, Mg, and Sr in the water . Neither the third device, an electrostatic water treatment, nor the other devices affected BW (P = .586) or feed conversion (P = .564) at 49 days of age . No significant treatment differences (P less than or equal to .05) in hematocrit, bursa of Fabricius weight, or tibial ash weight were observed at 21 days of age.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1991 Sep, 57(9), 2617 - 21
Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp . in filtered drinking water supplies; LeChevallier MW et al.; Giardia and Cryptosporidium levels were determined by using a combined immunofluorescence test for filtered drinking water samples collected from 66 surface water treatment plants in 14 states and 1 Canadian province . Giardia cysts were detected in 17% of the 83 filtered water effluents . Cryptosporidium oocysts, were observed in 27% of the drinking water samples . Overall, cysts or oocysts were found in 39% of the treated effluent samples . Despite the frequent detection of parasites in drinking water, microscopic observations of the cysts and oocysts suggested that most of the organisms were nonviable . Compliance with the filtration criteria outlined by the Surface Water Treatment Rule of the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency did not ensure that treated water was free of cysts and oocysts . The average plant effluent turbidity for sites which were parasite positive was 0.19 nephelometric turbidity units . Of sites that were positive for Giardia or Cryptosporidium spp., 78% would have been able to meet the turbidity regulations of the Surface Water Temperature Rule . Evaluation of the data by using a risk assessment model developed for Giardia spp . showed that 24% of the utilities examined would not meet a 1/10,000 annual risk of Giardia infection . For cold water conditions (0.5 degree C), 46% of the plants would not achieve the 1/10,000 risk level.

Leber Magen Darm, 1991 Sep, 21(5), 220 - 3
{Neurotensin liberation during the consumption of mineral water from Bad Mergentheimer Karlsquelle}; Eberhardt G et al.; The contraction of the gallbladder mainly mediated by CCK after oral administration of pharmacological doses of magnesium sulfate is familiar . The same applies to the cholekinetic action of courses of sulfatic mineral water treatment . It was demonstrated in 12 patients in a controlled study that besides other known secretions of gastrointestinal hormones, there is also a significant rise of the plasma level of neurotensin when Bad Mergentheimer Karlsquelle mineral water containing sulfate (3.7 g SO4/l) is drunk on an empty stomach (300 ml, 26 degrees C) . This was significantly greater (basal values 6.8 +/- 4.1 pg/ml and a maximum of 15.7 +/- 8.1 pg/ml after 40 min) than in a control group consisting of the same patients who had drunk tapwater . Whereas the involvement of the neuropeptide neurotensin in the regulation of the exocrine functions of the pancreas has been established, its effect in the regulation of gallbladder contraction is probably of rather minor significance compared to CCK.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1991 Sep, 192(2), 154 - 8
Occurrence of mycobacteria in drinking water samples; Fischeder R et al.; 33 ground water samples from three drinking water treatment plants and 72 samples from domestic drinking water distribution systems were studied for the occurrence of mycobacteria . 86 out of these samples tested positive for mycobacteria with concentrations generally ranging between 10(2) and 10(3) cfu/l . In one distribution system up to 4.5 x 10(5) cfu/l were found . Species identified by biochemical reactions and by thin layer chromatography of mycolic acids included: Mycobacterium gordonae (most water samples), M . flavescens, M . kansasii, M . chelonae (domestic water systems) and M . fortuitum (drinking water treatment plant) . Most isolates did not show patterns of biochemical reactivity attributable to any known mycobacterial species.

J Chromatogr, 1991 Aug 21, 554(1-2), 251 - 66
Polar, hydrophilic compounds in drinking water produced from surface water . Determination by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; Schroder HF; Drinking water produced from surface water may contain many polar, hydrophilic compounds in spite of different treatment steps such as soil filtration, ozone treatment and activated carbon filtration . Little is known about these compounds . The objectives of this work were the detection and identification by means of tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) coupled on-line by a thermospray interface with liquid chromatography . Quantification is possible if standard compounds are available . The different compounds in the water extracts were not only separated by means of an analytical column but also using MS-MS after loop injection bypassing the analytical column . Molecular weight information in the loop spectra (overview spectra) and collisionally induced dissociation (CID) made possible the identification of some of these compounds which cannot be eliminated in the drinking water treatment process . Identification was not only done by interpretation of the recorded daughter- and parent-ion spectra but also by comparing them with a laboratory-made daughter-ion library of polar, hydrophilic pollutants . Direct mixture analysis using MS-MS allows the detection and identification of some of the pollutants if they reach the drinking water in the course of the surface water treatment process because of their biochemical and chemical persistence and/or non-sorbability during the soil or activated carbon filtration process . The proposed method for the analysis of water for polar, non-volatile and/or thermolabile organic substances is a quick, specific and powerful technique which makes it possible to detect and identify these substances without any chromatographic separation or derivatization

Br Dent J, 1991 Aug 10-24, 171(3-4), 91 - 3
Domestic water treatment appliances and the fluoride ion; Robinson SN et al.; Specific ion metering of fluoride ion levels of water samples obtained after passage through water softeners and a conditioner showed no alteration in concentration when compared with controls . Similar comparison of water samples passed through water filters demonstrated that highly significant amounts of fluoride ion were removed . In one filter tested, 90% of the fluoride content was lost in the filtration process . The findings of this study suggest that, in a household using a filter, it may be necessary to increase the fluoride supplement or in some cases to initiate use of fluoride supplements as children are not receiving as much fluoride as was thought . New guidelines are required to take account of this surprising effect.

Int J Food Microbiol, 1991 Aug, 13(4), 321 - 7
Incidence of Listeria monocytogenes in meat production environments of a South Island (New Zealand) mutton slaughterhouse; Pociecha JZ et al.; The results of a survey conducted at a South Island, New Zealand, abattoir are presented . Two-hundred-and-eighteen samples taken from ovine carcasses and the environment were analysed . The traditional cold enrichment, i.e . 4 degrees C for up to 16 weeks, was used . No isolations of listeriae were made from freshly dressed carcasses or from surfaces with which meat makes contact . However, seven isolates of Listeria monocytogenes were obtained from cold rooms operating at 5 degrees C and which are used to store carcasses . Also, a single isolate of L . ivanovii was obtained from a mesh screen strainer of the waste water treatment plant located near the works . The study indicates that ovine carcasses can be prepared free of L . monocytogenes, that cold rooms may be a source of these microorganisms and it also reconfirms that listeriae can be found in soil and fodder of animal paddocks adjacent to the abattoir.

Fundam Appl Toxicol, 1991 Aug, 17(2), 254 - 69
Pulmonary response to perfluoropolymer fume and particles generated under various exposure conditions; Lee KP et al.; Combustion-product toxicity of perfluorinated polymers in small-scale tests varied markedly under various exposure conditions . The toxicity of perfluoropolymer fumes is associated with submicron pyrolysis particles (0.03-0.15 microns) in the fumes . The toxicity of pyrolysis products was not observed in rats exposed to the fumes filtered to remove the particles . The particles in the fume were agglomerated by aging or a water-treatment process, and the toxicity of particles was markedly reduced when rats were exposed to aged or water-treated fumes . Some agglomerated particles showed chain-aggregation and ultimately attained nonrespirable size . The reduced toxicity of pyrolysis fume is believed to be due to a decreased number of toxic particles resulting from particle agglomeration . Aged particle agglomerate was not toxic when instilled intratracheally into the rats . However, the particle agglomerate became toxic when rats were exposed by the inhalation to fumes evolved from the reheated agglomerate . The fumes contained numerous toxic submicron particles evolved from thermal decomposition of agglomerates by reheating . Rats exposed to the pyrolysis fumes died with pulmonary edema and hemorrhage due to Type I pneymocyte damage . The edematous lungs revealed some agglomerated particles, but it was difficult to distinguish small pyrolysis particles from contaminating dust or cellular debris.

J Parenter Sci Technol, 1991 Jul-Aug, 45(4), 183 - 6
The rate of endotoxin destruction during water treatment using a combination of ozone and ultraviolet radiation; Lee MG et al.; The rate of destruction of endotoxin in water samples by a combination of UV and ozone has been investigated . After an initial non-linear phase the rate of destruction followed 1st order kinetics with a calculated D value of between six and ten min on endotoxin levels as high as 100 EU/mL . Measuring endotoxin destruction rates has proved an effective way of validating the UV-ozone water treatment process.

Health Devices, 1991 Jun, 20(6), 187 - 232
Hemodialysis machines; Total coliform detection in drinking water: comparison of membrane filtration with Colilert and Coliquik; Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine 92717The Colilert (CL) and Coliquik (CQ) systems were compared in a presence-absence format against the Standard Methods membrane filtration (MF) technique to determine whether differences existed in total coliform detection . Approximately 750 water samples were collected from distribution systems, covered and uncovered storage reservoirs, well sites, and the influent to drinking water treatment plants . Samples were analyzed for total coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria with MF, CL, and CQ . The agreements between CL and MF and between CQ and MF were both greater than 94.8%, which indicates that both may be acceptable methods for total coliform detection . Disagreement between the CL and CQ methods was primarily due to false-negative results . Furthermore, laboratory and field inoculation methods were compared for CL, more than 98% agreement was obtained . This finding indicates that sampling and immediate field inoculation may be an alternative to the traditional laboratory inoculation.

Kosm Biol Aviakosm Med, 1991 May-Jun, 25(3), 52 - 5
{Water purification from ethylene glycol by catalytic oxidation using hydrogen peroxide}; Vasilenko II et al.; In order to select the method of water regeneration from air moisture condensate in a manned enclosed environment, the procedure of water decontamination from ethylene glycol was investigated . The process developed at t 20-22 degrees C and the following concentrations of C2H6O2 = 0.0125-0.5 mole/l, H2O2 = 1-5 mole/l, and catalyst = 1.7-50% wt . In the presence of 6.67 g/l of homogeneous catalyst FeSO4.7H2O, destructive oxidation of ethylene glycol to yield CO2 in the system 0.1 M C2H6O2 + 1M H2O2 proceeded effectively . However, the iron concentration in the decontaminated water exceeded significantly the maximally allowable concentration of iron in potable water as well as in industrial and non-industrial sewage . Heterogeneous MnO- and PbO-based catalysts provided no more than 20% ethylene glycol oxidation . Siderite, a natural mineral containing 33% wt . Fe2+, proved a more effective catalyst of ethylene glycol oxidation . When ethylene glycol and hydrogen peroxide were used at ratios of 1:30 and 1:80 with 5% wt . siderite, the degree of C2H6O2 to CO2 conversion was 99.2% and 99.8, respectively.

Poult Sci, 1991 Apr, 70(4), 776 - 9
Reproductive performance of artificially inseminated hens receiving saline drinking water; Zhang D et al.; Laying hens were selected at random and placed in individual cages in a commercial type layer shed . One hundred hens received town water and one hundred received town water supplemented with 2 g NaCl/L . Half the hens on each water treatment were inseminated every 7 days with mixed semen collected from six cockerels of a commercial table egg strain maintained on town water . The remaining hens were inseminated with semen from six cockerels receiving town water supplemented with 2 g NaCl/L . Eggs were collected and stored at 12 C over a 7-day period before eggs with defective shells were identified and removed . All remaining eggs were incubated and candled at 7 and 18 days of incubation to detect infertile eggs and embryonic deaths . Data from six consecutive hatches were analyzed . The incidence of eggs with defective shells doubled in hens receiving the saline drinking water . These hens had a significantly (twofold) higher incidence of embryonic deaths and a significantly lower (13%) hatchability of fertile eggs . For every 100 eggs laid the numbers of settable eggs and chicks hatched were significantly reduced in hens receiving the saline drinking water . The saline water reduced the numbers hatched by 20% for every 100 eggs laid . The water treatment given to the cockerels had little effect on reproductive performance.

Clin Ter, 1991 Mar 15, 136(5), 343 - 9
{Behavior of various enzymes and serum electrolytes in long distance runners during training . Effect of a bicarbonate-sulfate-calcium water of medium mineral content}; Grossi F et al.; The above study was intended to assess the effect of a bicarbonate sulfate alkaline water of medium mineral contents in long-distance runners during training . Several parameters relating to water-electrolyte and lactate-pyruvate metabolism, and to the patterns of serum enzymes of variable cellular localization were determined . Altogether twelve indices were taken into account . No significant changes were observed fron the start to the end of mineral water treatment . This goes to show that training was well balanced and did not impair the athletes' biochemical homeostasis . At the end of the treatment period, non negligible fluctuations of CCK and LDH were observed . This finding is not devoid of interest and deserves further study.

Sci Total Environ, 1991 Feb, 102, 35 - 73
A nation-wide survey of the chemical composition of drinking water in Norway; Flaten TP; Water samples were collected from 384 waterworks that supply 70.9% of the Norwegian population . The samples were collected after water treatment and were analysed for 30 constituents . Although most constituents show wide concentration ranges, Norwegian drinking water is generally soft . The median values obtained are: 0.88 mg Si l-1, 0.06 mg Al l-1, 47 micrograms Fe l-1, 0.69 mg Mg l-1, 2.9 mg Ca l-1, 3.8 mg Na l-1, 6 micrograms Mn l-1, 12 micrograms Cu l-1, 14 micrograms Zn l-1, 9 micrograms Ba l-1, 15 micrograms Sr l-1, 0.14 mg K l-1, 58 micrograms F- l-1, 6.4 mg Cl- l-1, 11 micrograms Br- l-1, 0.46 mg NO3- l-1, 5.3 mg SO4(2-) l-1, 2.4 mg TOC l-1, 6.8 (pH), 5) microseconds cm-1 (conductivity) and 11 mg Pt l-1 (colour) . Titanium, Pb, Ni, Co, V, Mo, Cd, Be and Li were seldom or never quantified, due to insufficient sensitivity of the ICP (inductively coupled plasma) method . Norwegian quality criteria, which exist for 17 of the constituents examined, are generally fulfilled, indicating that the chemical quality of drinking water, by and large, is good in Norway . For Fe, Ca, Mn, Cu, pH, TOC and colour, however, the norms for good drinking water are exceeded in more than 9% of the samples, reflecting two of the major problems associated with Norwegian drinking water supplies: (i) many water sources contain high concentrations of humic substances; (ii) in large parts of the country, the waters are soft and acidic, and therefore corrosive towards pipes, plumbing and other installations . Most constituents show marked regional distribution patterns, which are discussed in the light of different mechanisms contributing to the chemical composition of drinking water, namely: chemical weathering of mineral matter; atmospheric supply of salt particles from the sea; anthropogenic pollution (including acid precipitation); corrosion of water pipes and plumbing; water treatment; decomposition of organic matter; and hydrological differences.

Nephrologie, 1991, 12(1), 27 - 30
{Fungal contamination of a dialysis water treatment system}; Montagnac R et al.; The authors report fungal contamination of the water delivery system in one of their dialysis centers . They emphasize the insufficiency of the legal recommendations for water analysis, as well as the economical and logistical consequences of this type of contamination . Finally, they suggest disinfection procedures allowing eradication of fungi.

Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 1991 Spring, 28-29, 855 - 63
Study of BOD microbial sensors for waste water treatment control; Li YR et al.; A microbial sensor consisting of immobilized yeast or bacterial cells and an oxygen electrode was developed for the estimation of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) . A flow-through system was used, and the response time was within 20 min . A linear relationship was observed between the relative current decrease and the BOD of the sample solution within the range of 1-45 mg/L . The storage lifetime was greater than 1 yr . The reproducibility was quite good, within 6% fsd at a concentration of 20 mg/L BOD . Satisfactory results were attained when the biosensor was applied to the determination of BOD in brewery-plant and glutamate-plant wastewater and in a river.

Poult Sci, 1991 Jan, 70(1), 53 - 9
Effects of sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride drinking water supplementation . 1 . Performance and exterior carcass quality of broilers grown under thermoneutral or cyclic heat-stress conditions; Whiting TS et al.; Two broiler trials were conducted using two environmentally controlled chambers . From 4 to 8 wk of age in Trial 1, and from 5 to 8 wk of age in Trial 2, male broilers were grown under either constant environmental conditions {25 C, 50% relative humidity (RH)}, or a daily cyclic heat stress period (4 h of 35 to 38 C, 40% RH) . One of four water solutions was provided to each of 16 pens per chamber: 1) 5% NaHCO3: 2) .5% KCl; 3) .5% KCl and NaHCO3, or 4) an unsupplemented control of tap water . Seven-wk body weight, 8-wk weight, weight gain, water consumption, infected feather follicle score, prekill and carcass without giblets weight were all significantly (P less than .05) affected by environmental treatment in both trials . In Trial 1, a significant effect due to water treatment was detected for infected feather follicle score, with control broilers significantly less afflicted than broilers on the other three water treatments . In Trial 2, a significant (P less than .05) temperature treatment effect was detected for abdominal fat pad weight, where differences in fat pad weight were found among water treatments under constant conditions but not under cyclic environmental conditions . These differences in fat pad weight, when expressed as a percentage of carcass weight, were at a probability of .0814 . Overall, no appreciable improvements were detected in the broiler production parameters measured under either environmental regimen for the water treatments tested.

Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig, 1991, 42(3), 309 - 15
{Keratinophilic fungi in waste water sediments}; Ulfig K; In 21 samples of various kinds of waste water sediments derived from 10 waste water treatment plants of Upper Silesia, the occurrence of keratinophilic fungi was examined . A 2-year recultivation cycle of one of the sediments was investigated . Keratinophilic fungi were found to occur abundantly in waste water sediments . The qualitative and quantitative composition of these fungi depends on the origin and composition of waste water sediments, stabilization degree of their organic matter, hydration degree and structure . It was postulated that keratinophilic fungi may be utilized as microbiological indices of the transformations of organic matter of waste water sediments as well as of the degree of their deactivation from the sanitary standpoint . These fungi can be particularly useful upon utilization of the sediments for recultivation and fertilization of grounds.

Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig, 1991, 42(3), 297 - 307
{Occurrence of organochlorine compounds in drinking water for cities of Zielona Gora and in water of some rivers in the Zielona Gora province}; Jedrczak A et al.; In years 1988-1989 the contents of organochlorine compounds were determined by gas chromatography in tap water obtained by treatment of a mixture of surface water and subterranean water, as well as in waters of three rivers of the Zielona Gora province Odra, Obra Leniwa and Obrzyca . Chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene were determined . These compounds were present both in surface waters and subterranean waters . In subterranean waters the mean concentrations of chloroform and carbon tetrachloride were 12.3 and 2.7 micrograms/dm3, respectively . Surface waters contained from 10-20 to several tons of micrograms chloroform/dm3 and small amounts of carbon tetrachloride . The remaining organochlorine compounds occurred only in the Odra River, often in considerable amounts . During water treatment in accelerators, chloroform concentrations rose several times, and carbon tetrachloride levels slightly increased . In tap water the chloroform content fluctuated between 18.1-90.0 micrograms/dm3, whereas the concentration of the remaining organochlorine compounds did not exceed 5 micrograms/dm3.

Asia Pac J Public Health, 1991, 5(1), 27 - 31
Adsorption removal of benzalkonium chloride by granular activated carbon for medical waste water treatment; Tanada M et al.; The adsorption removal of benzalkonium chloride disinfectant by granular activated carbon is discussed . The adsorption isotherm of benzalkonium chloride was expressed by the Freundlich equation . A significant correlation was found between the amount of benzalkonium chloride adsorbed in less than 1000 ppm of equilibrium concentration and the micropore volume of activated carbon . As for the adsorption rate, a change in intraparticle diffusiveness was found with increasing adsorption ratio . No significant correlation between the values of intraparticle diffusiveness and the properties of activated carbon was found . It was concluded that the micropore volume of activated carbon was the dominant factor in the adsorption removal of benzalkonium chloride by granular activated carbon.

Ann Ist Super Sanita, 1991, 27(4), 657 - 64
{Production of mutagenic compounds during the water purification treatment of surface water}; Gilli G et al.; In the last years many studies have reported the presence of mutagenic/carcinogenic compounds in treated waters . These substances can be present in raw water, but are also produced during drinking water purification . Mutagens are formed as by-products of chemical reactions between oxidants/disinfectants used in treatments and organic load of the raw water (humic and fulvic acids) . The aim of this study was to evaluate the production of mutagenic substances during the main phases of the Po river water treatment ("PO3" plant) in Turin . Water samples (50 litres), collected from February 1989 to August 1990, were concentrated with XAD-2/XAD-8 resins mixture . Extracts were tested for mutagenicity at different doses (1, 2.5, 5 and 10 litres) by Ames Salmonella assay, using TA 100 and TA 98 strains, without microsome fraction (S9) . Raw water was rarely mutagenic while, in particular at the highest doses (5 and 10 litres), sometimes showed toxic effect . After ozonation treatment only few samples were mutagenic with TA 100 strain, while 43% of the samples were mutagenic with TA 98 . The following treatment of clariflocculation and chlorination with NaClO produced mutagens in 95% of the samples assayed with TA 100 and in 85% of the samples assayed with TA 98 . The next GAC/sand filtration step seems to reduce the mutagenic load produced in the previous phases . Finally, drinking water after chlorination with ClO2 showed weak mutagenicity at 1 litre dose (26% and 21% of positive samples with TA 100 and TA 98 respectively) and this effect increased at the higher dosages.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Bull World Health Organ, 1991, 69(1), 113 - 9
Presence of enteric viruses in freshwater and their removal by the conventional drinking water treatment process; Hurst CJ; A review of results published in English or French between 1980 and 1990 was carried out to determine the levels of indigenous human enteric viruses in untreated surface and subsurface freshwaters, as well as in drinking water that had undergone the complete conventional treatment process . For this purpose, the conventional treatment process was defined as an operation that included coagulation followed by sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection . Also assessed was the stepwise efficiency of the conventional treatment process, as practised at full-scale facilities, for removing indigenous viruses from naturally occurring freshwaters . A list was compiled of statistical correlations relating to the occurrence of indigenous viruses in water.

Mutat Res, 1990 Dec, 245(4), 231 - 7
The micronucleus assay in Anodonta cygnea for the detection of drinking water mutagenicity; Scarpato R et al.; A micronucleus test in gill cells of the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea has been proposed for the detection of drinking water genotoxicity . Animals were exposed for 28 days to a drinking water sample and collected every week . Highly significant increases in spontaneous MN frequency were observed at each sampling, especially after 13 days of exposure . As positive control 2 doses of mytomicin C (MMC) were used (10(-8) and 10(-7) M) . A second experiment was performed at a municipal waterworks in order to assess the role of water treatment processes in the production of mutagenic compounds . The most prevalent genotoxic effects were detected after chlorination (mean: 10.47% +/- 3.05, p less than 0.001).

Metabolism, 1990 Dec, 39(12), 1320 - 4
Supplemental growth hormone increases the tumor cytotoxic activity of natural killer cells in healthy adults with normal growth hormone secretion; Crist DM et al.; Using double-blind, placebo-controlled procedures, the effects of methionyl-human growth hormone (met-hGH) on the tumor cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells were studied in seven healthy adults using a repeated measures experiment . Subjects were assigned at random to either a placebo (bacteriostatic water) treatment condition or a met-hGH (16.0 mg/wk of Protropin) treatment condition, then crossed-over to the alternative treatment . Treatments were delivered on alternate days (3 d/wk) for 6 weeks . Without bias from the met-hGH treatment, there was no evidence for GH hyposecretion as measured by the peak circulating GH response to exercise stimulation (14.1 +/- 3.1 ng/mL) or insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) levels (0.82 +/- 0.09 U/mL) . When compared with placebo, met-hGH induced a significant overall increase in the percent specific lysis (%SL) of K562 tumor target cells (placebo 22.2 +/- 1.7 v met-hGH 28.5 +/- 2.1 %SL; P = .008) . NK activity was increased within the first week of treatment and this level was maintained throughout the remaining period of supplementation . There was a trend (P = .057) for the met-hGH-induced percent change in NK activity (NK%) to be inversely related to placebo IGF-I levels (r = -.761), while there were significant positive correlations between NK% and the met-hGH-induced percent changes in IGF-I (r = .727; P = .035), the fat-free mass (FFM)/fat mass (FM) ratio derived by hydrodensitometry (r = .792; P = .012), and the endogenous GH response to exercise (r = .469; P = .034).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

J Egypt Soc Parasitol, 1990 Dec, 20(2), 753 - 69
Total count of microorganisms contaminating water supply system of Ismailia City, Egypt; Dewedar A et al.; The efficiency of water purification in the French and the British systems of Ismailia city was evaluated concerning the contaminating microorganisms . Counting of microbial contaminants was based on the phenotypic characters of the colony type . Colony-types of eubacteria, eumycetes, Micromonospores and Streptomyces enumerated in the crude water and the different steps of purification . Total counts of microflora in both systems were higher than the counts in canal water . Meanwhile, microbial isolates were higher in the French system than that of the British one . The increased counts in tap water, compared with canal water, were recorded in winter for bacteria and in spring for fungi . These data showed variations in the microbial total counts according to: plant system, steps of purification, chlorination season and type of microbes.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1990 Dec, 56(12), 3822 - 9
Assessment of the bacteriological activity associated with granular activated carbon treatment of drinking water; Stewart MH et al.; Bacteriological analyses were performed on the effluent from a conventional water treatment pilot plant in which granular activated carbon (GAC) had been used as the final process to assess the impact of GAC on the microbial quality of the water produced . Samples were collected twice weekly for 160 days from the effluents of six GAC columns, each of which used one of four different empty-bed contact times (7.5, 15, 30, and 60 min) . The samples were analyzed for heterotrophic plate counts and total coliforms . Effluent samples were also exposed to chloramines and free chlorine for 60 min (pH 8.2, 23 degrees C) . Bacterial identifications were performed on the disinfected and nondisinfected effluents . Additional studies were conducted to assess the bacteriological activity associated with released GAC particles . The results indicated that heterotrophic plate counts in the effluents from all columns increased to 10(5) CFU/ml within 5 days and subsequently stabilized at 10(4) CFU/ml . The heterotrophic plate counts did not differ at different empty-bed contact times . Coliforms (identified as Enterobacter spp.) were recovered from the nondisinfected effluent on only two occasions . The disinfection results indicated that 1.5 mg of chloramines per liter inactivated approximately 50% more bacteria than did 1.0 mg of free chlorine per liter after 1 h of contact time . Chloramines and chlorine selected for the development of different bacterial species--Pseudomonas spp . and Flavobacterium spp., respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Thyroidology, 1990 Dec, 2(3), 113 - 9
Intervention policy in endemic goitre areas; Gaitan E; The multifactorial nature and complex interactions of regionspecific environmental conditions with host factors in the pathogenesis of endemic goitre constitute a major challenge to the understanding and control of the problem in endemic areas . However, to control and prevent this important public health problem, the most obvious but difficult initial step requires substantial socioeconomic improvements in the affected areas of less developed countries, including, first, provision of efficient iodine prophylaxis programs, second, diversification of dietary constituents with adequate daily protein-calorie intake, and third, institution of proper sanitary conditions with effective water treatment to eliminate organic and bacterial pollutants . This last intervention is also a requirement to control and prevent goitre in the iodine-sufficient more developed countries . In this regard, more research is needed to provide effective ways of water treatment that can be applied in individual households or at the community level.

Health Estate J, 1990 Oct, 44(8), 2 - 4
The case for design and build in piped medical gases; Cruddas I; The proposal is not new or radical in that currently many small works are and historical have been carried out implicitly utilising this system . Furthermore, this idea is not suggesting that M&E consultants be omitted from the process only that their role be redefined in terms of approving/checking proposals/installations/commissioning etc . There is an appropriate form of contract already available through JCT '80 why not utilise it? As is being done with boilers, water treatment, lifts etc . etc . The recommendation would improve quality, reduce time and cost, directly apportion accountability and involve the knowledgeable professionals within the industry.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1990 Sep, 190(3), 217 - 35
{Bacterial regrowth in drinking water . IV . Bacterial flora in fresh and stagnant water in drinking water purification and in the drinking water distribution system}; Jaeggi NE et al.; Six dead end water pipes were installed inside a Zurich drinking water plant and five others over a distance of 12 km along the distribution system and the water was left stagnating in there for 2 weeks . A total of 1508 bacteria from fresh and stagnating water were isolated and identified . Of these, 241 bacterial isolates from the distribution system were examined using the nutrient-tolerance test, i.e . testing the ability to grow in tap water and in media with low and very high nutrient content . In the fresh water of the treatment plant specific bacterial populations were obtained, these occurring particularly after the filters . According to different chlorine dosage and chlorine demand, they were finally washed into the distribution system in varying amounts and compositions . It was shown that in the fresh water of the distribution system the genera of Pseudomonas, Azotobacter and Actinobacteria were each present at a level of approximately 30% . After two weeks stagnation non-fluorescing pseudomonads were dominating in the treatment plant as well as in the fresh water of the distribution system . All isolated Actinobacteria and Azotobacter and almost half of the Pseudomonads proved to be oligotrophic oligocarbotolerants or oligocarbophilic organisms in the nutrient-tolerance test . The other half of the Pseudomonads plus the Flexibacter species were mesotrophic oligocarbotolerants, since they could grow in tap water and in culture media with very high nutrient content . Attention is drawn to the unrecognized danger of recontamination of mesotrophic bacteria growing rapidly in stagnating drinking water, which is used as rinsing water for cleaning food processing equipment.

Can J Public Health, 1990 Sep-Oct, 81(5), 358 - 62
Giardiasis outbreak from a chlorinated community water supply; Moorehead WP et al.; A giardiasis outbreak from a chlorinated, unfiltered surface water supply in Penticton, British Columbia (pop . 25,000) from June to August 1986 resulted in 362 laboratory-confirmed cases . A telephone survey estimated an attack rate of over 12% . A reservoir pond containing Giardia-infected beaver was implicated as the source . A case-control study with 65 cases did not find any significant associations . A retrospective case-finding survey of records from eight (out of 35) general physicians estimated that 1,500 physician visits occurred and produced an epidemic curve in close parallel with that from laboratory-confirmed and reported cases . Despite improvements on the reservoir, another outbreak occurred when this water source was reinstituted in October for several weeks, confirming our conclusion that it was the source of the first outbreak . Various options for reducing the risk of future outbreaks are being explored including full water treatment.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1990 Sep, 31(1), 11 - 27
Urinary mutagens in municipal refuse incinerator workers and water treatment workers; Scarlett JM et al.; Municipal refuse incineration workers may be exposed to mutagenic compounds from gaseous and particulate emissions and during ash removal operations . The frequency of urinary mutagens was measured by the Ames test among a sample of 104 refuse incinerator workers in seven incinerator plants during March-May 1988 . The frequency was compared to that observed in 61 water treatment employees in 11 municipal water treatment facilities during the same period . Incinerator workers had a significantly higher risk for urinary mutagens and promutagens as compared to water plant workers after controlling for age . Among incinerator workers, increased risk of having urinary mutagens was associated with workers who wore protective clothing (defined as clothing other than masks or gloves) or whose job classification was equipment repair . It also showed a weak positive association with increasing age . There was an increased risk of urinary promutagens associated with not wearing gloves . The presence or absence of mutagenicity in workers' urine varied with plant location . Incinerator operating conditions affecting the production of toxicants and mutagens are discussed and the results of other studies involving toxicant exposure of humans near incinerators are cited.

Salud Publica Mex, 1990 Sep-Oct, 32(5), 566 - 74
{The evaluation of the integral water treatment system of a general hospital in Mexico City}; Juarez-Mendoza J et al.; The Mexican Health Office (SSA) promotes the use and progeny of the appropriate technology for the bacteriological quality evaluation and disinfect the water by means of the in situ progeny of the clorus and ozonus gases when needed, for the human consumption in suburban and rural communities . The clorus water disinfecting conventional methods by many reasons are useless, even in urbanized cities . CEDAT has built and design a group of apparatus, called: "Water treatment whole equipment for small communities", and it's build up by: Membrane Filter, Double Chamber Incubator, ultraviolet Light Sterilizer and a clorus and ozonus progenic gas electrolytic cell with CA and CD power box and a Venturi Tube . The electrolytic cell raw material is the sodium chlorine (salt) water mixed . The evaluation of these equipment was made at the Manuel Gea Gonzalez Medical Doctor General Hospital . During 38 days there was a daily measure of chlorine sewage in six different parts of the hospital . It was used the cellulose membrane filter technic with a 0.45 mm porus and a sowing in M-Endo and M-FC Broth cultivation was in a 37 and 44 centigrade incubation . The first 10 days chlorine sewage was found, the last 28 weren't measurable . Total coliforms in 23 of 42, 7 days samples and excrement coliforms in 5 of 18, 3 days samples, were developed during the 38 days period . The electrolytic cell was settled for the water gas measure up in its way to the reservoir . Afterwards chlorine sewage was measured from 0.2 mg/l to 1 mg/l in all the sample parts . No germ kind was discovered during the 10 days sampling.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Int J Artif Organs, 1990 Aug, 13(8), 482 - 7
Hemodialysis-associated febrile episodes: surveillance before and after major alteration in the water treatment system; Gaynes R et al.; Surveillance for bacteremic or pyrogenic episodes associated with hemodialysis was undertaken before and after the reconstruction of the water treatment system at our University medical center . The new water system included a holding tank with iodination treatment . The water delivered to individual dialysis stations had only occasional positive bacterial cultures (3 of 21 samples before completion of construction, 2 of 16 samples afterwards) and intermittent detection of endotoxin (6 of 21 samples before completion of construction, 9 of 16 samples afterwards) at monthly sampling . Among 51 individual dialysis treatments (25 patients) before reconstruction and 56 treatments (29 patients), after, only 2 and 3 febrile events were identified, respectively . All of these were associated with underlying infectious illness and not with the hemodialysis procedure itself . Overall, we conclude that pyrogenic episodes associated directly with hemodialysis treatment are infrequent, and that the addition of a water storage tank with iodination treatment does not appear to increase the risk of bacteremia or pyrogenic episodes.

Offentl Gesundheitswes, 1990 Aug-Sep, 52(8-9), 405 - 7
{Current status of bath water treatment techniques}; Hasselbarth U et al.; The Federal German DIN standard No . 19644 that has been enforced in West Germany since 1989 had to be revised in view of the fact that German legislation is expected to issue an ordinance on swimming pool and public bath water within the framework of the Federal Communicable Diseases Act; furthermore, the need for revision also arose from the solution of the hygienic problems of treatment and disinfection of warm whirlpool water, and from the necessity of modifying several now outdated regulations . It is the aim of public health legislation to prevent health risks of bathers and of attendant staff by Legionella pneumophila in all types of basins with additional water cycles and intake of air (aerosol formation); likewise, adverse health effects of side reaction products of the disinfectant chlorine (i . e . chloroamines and halogenated organic compounds, especially the trihalomethanes) must be avoided . Recent research has shown that these aims can be achieved by altering the mode of running and backwashing filters of all process combinations including those using ozone and introducing an additional absorption on powdered activated carbon, and the process combination of flocculation-filtration-chlorination . Improved treatment would be without effect if turnover rates could not be assessed reliably for basins of irregular geometry--as they are preferably used today--operated with additional water cycles involving intake of air . Lack of costly investigations prompts users to estimate turnover rates on the basis of experience collected with basins of square or rectangular dimensions.

Offentl Gesundheitswes, 1990 Aug-Sep, 52(8-9), 390 - 400
{Status of water supply treatment techniques}; Flinspach D et al.; The paper portrays the difficulties with which the water works presently have to contend in the preparation of drinking water from polluted sources . Particular emphasis is on describing the present state of water treatment methods and what they are capable of achieving . After an overview of the substances found in ground and surface water that impair the preparation of drinking water, the methods available today for water treatment are described . Finally, practical examples showing the most effective combination of these methods in modern water treatment plants are presented.

Cancer Lett, 1990 Jul 16, 52(2), 133 - 8
Enhancement of dimethylnitrosamine-induced glutathione S-transferase P-positive hepatic foci by Clonorchis sinensis infestation in F344 rats; Jang JJ et al.; The modifying potential of Clonorchis sinensis (CS) infestation on dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-induced hepatocarcinogenesis was studied in male F344 rats . The metacercariae of CS were infected, 60 to each animal, by a single intragastric intubation at various times, before, during or after an 8-week period of DMN (25 ppm in drinking water) treatment . Controls were treated with DMN alone or infected with CS without carcinogen . Animals killed at the end of the 40-week experimental period showed a significant enhancing effect of CS on GST-P+ foci induction when CS was infected 4 weeks before DMN treatment, although no such influence was evident with CS infection during or following DMN exposure . The present findings suggest that CS might facilitate the proliferation of DMN-induced preneoplastic lesions of liver in rats.

Lancet, 1990 Jul 7, 336(8706), 35 - 7
Outbreak of Pontiac fever due to Legionella anisa; Fenstersheib MD et al.; An outbreak of Pontiac fever occurred among 34 of 56 people attending conferences at a hotel in Santa Clara County, California, in 1988 . Two groups had an acute febrile upper respiratory illness, with a mean attack rate of 82% and a mean incubation period of 56 hours . Symptoms resolved spontaneously within 5 days . Legionella anisa, which had not previously been associated with outbreaks of Pontiac fever or legionnaires' disease, was isolated from a decorative fountain in the hotel lobby . In addition, 5 of 8 pairs of serum samples from cases showed a more than fourfold rise in antibody titre to the L anisa recovered from the fountain . 42% of hotel employees had titres greater than or equal to 256 against L anisa, whereas none of 48 serum samples from matched controls had titres greater than or equal to 128 . The findings raise concern about water treatment protocols for extent of disease that might be caused by exposure to aerosols containing L anisa and other Legionella species.

J Parenter Sci Technol, 1990 Jul-Aug, 44(4), 231 - 41
The production of pharmaceutical grades of water using continuous deionization post-reverse osmosis; Ganzi GC et al.; Continuous deionization (CDI) devices to purify water have recently become available . CDI and reverse osmosis (RO) equipment can form the key elements of water treatment trains that produce ultrapure water, without the need for the chemical regenerants associated with batch ion-exchange processes . CDI systems used as downstream polishers of RO product water have been found to be effective for the removal of trace ionic contaminants . Recently, CDI technology was extended, and devices are now capable of removing dissolved carbon dioxide without the requirement of pH adjustment . Examples from a number of installations are provided . CDI systems have been found to reduce the levels of total oxidizable carbon as well . Field experiences are provided and discussed . RO/CDI systems can be maintained to provide product water with low levels of bacteria and pyrogens . The results of a nine-month study of a system designed to produce pharmaceutical grade water are provided.

Rev Sanid Hig Publica (Madr), 1990 Jul-Aug, 64(7-8), 415 - 23
{Antimicrobial activity of ozonized water in determined experimental conditions}; Minguez F et al.; Ozone is a potent disinfecting agent which has been used successfully in water treatment, as well as to cure wounds . It can also be used in dental clinics, in laboratories, and in hospitals to clean and disinfect work surfaces and instruments . In this paper we have carried out a study of the antimicrobial activity of ozonized water . Antimicrobial activity in ozonized water on bacterial suspensions and contaminated materials was meaningful and depended fundamentally on concentration and time of exposure . On buccal flora, one rinse alone had no effect, but various successive rinses led to substantial reductions in the number of colonies of bacteria . Ozone had a similar effect, although more pronounced, on the flora of the hands . Ozonized water placed in an open dish kept up antimicrobial activity for the first 20 minutes, but after 30 minutes this activity decreased substantially.

Gig Sanit, 1990 Jun, (6), 21 - 3
{Indicatory role of coliphages in relation to contamination of drinking water by enteroviruses}; Rakhmanin IU et al.; It has been found out that a coli-phage is a more reliable indirect indicator of viral pollution of drinking water that the existing indirect bacterial indicators . Coli-phages concentration in drinking water on the level of single PFU/1 is evidence of disturbances in the barrier function of water-treatment facilities with respect to viral microflora and of the possible epidemic danger of water with respect to viral infection . The absence of coli-phages in I 1 of water sample should be considered the standard level of coli-phages of drinking water.

Med Lav, 1990 May-Jun, 81(3), 230 - 41
{Environmental impact of tanning industry}; Cocheo V; Airborne hydrogen sulphide was monitored continuously for 91 hours in the residential area of the Chiampo Valley in northern Italy, where about 150 tanneries are located; 74 air samples were taken to detect the environmental concentrations of solvents . Hydrogen sulphide concentrations obtained every 2.5 min in the residential area of Arzignano, the main town in the Chiampo Valley, were averaged over one hour . The mean values were plotted against time and wind direction: the tridimensional plot showed that the highest concentrations (over 300 ppb) were statistically detected between 10 a.m . and 12 a.m . with an east-southeast wind direction . About 40 tanneries are located over a distance of 1 km along this direction . The main causes of air pollution were the discharge of unhairing liquid and pickling operations in the factories, and the sewage system and waste water treatment plant . As regards solvents, a preliminary study showed that the 149 tanneries located in this area used about 17,700 tons/year of coating materials to finish about 40 million square metres of leather . Thirty more solvents were released into the atmosphere from these materials, the most important of which being: aromatic hydrocarbons (3,100 tons/year), acetates (2,800 tons/year), ketones (1,500 tons/year), alcohols (1,350 tons/year) and glycol ethers (520 tons/years) . The average concentrations detected in the air were: 326 micrograms/m3 for aromatic hydrocarbons, 302 micrograms/m3 for acetates, 139 micrograms/m3 for ketones, 125 micrograms/m3 for alcohols and 16 micrograms/m3 for glycol-ethers . The cumulative concentration was more than 1 mg/m3 for 30% of the samples and more than 2 mg/m3 for 7% . The percentage of airborne solvents agreed well with that of solvents in the coating materials, thus demonstrating that most of these compounds originated from the tanneries.

Artif Organs, 1990 Apr, 14(2), 85 - 94
Microbial and endotoxin contamination in water and dialysate in the central United States; Klein E et al.; The purified water supplies and randomly selected dialysates of 51 chronic and acute dialysis centers in the central United States were surveyed to assess the relative risks to dialysis patients from microbial and endotoxin contamination . A culture medium more sensitive than those generally employed in routine quality assurance assays was used for recovery of bacteria from water . With this medium, 35.3% of the water samples and 19% of the dialysate samples were out of compliance with the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) standards: 200 and 2,000 colony forming units (CFU)/ml, respectively . There was no correlation observed between the type of water purification system or the frequency of disinfection of the system and the bacterial and endotoxin contamination levels . There was also no correlation found between the bacterial and fungal CFU per ml and the endotoxin concentration per ml (EU/ml) . It is recommended that more sensitive culturing methods be used to provide adequate bacterial monitoring of dialysate center water supplies . Dialysis centers should monitor endotoxin in dialysate on a regular schedule and immediately after any endotoxemic-like patient reactions . Yeast and fungi were observed in 10% and 64% of the water systems, respectively . Dialysate was contaminated by yeast and fungi in 30% and 70% of the centers, respectively . The concentrations of these microbes in both fluids were much lower than bacteria . However, they were observed often enough to warrant further investigation of their impact on the well-being of dialysis patients.

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1990 Mar, 6(1), 47 - 54
Control of Culex pipiens by Bacillus sphaericus and role of nontarget arthropods in its recycling; Karch S et al.; Bacillus sphaericus was used to control Culex pipiens breeding in a water treatment settling basin near Montpellier, France . Four treatments with 4 liters/ha (3.6 lb/acre) of commercially available B . sphaericus formulation (Vectolex) reduced the larval population of Cx . pipiens with 50-600 spores of B . sphaericus/ml recorded in the treated portions of the water plant 14 days following the last treatment . Natural recycling of the bacteria was shown to take place at the water surface where germination of spores was evidenced . The appearance of vegetative forms of B . sphaericus may be linked to the passage through larval guts of several filter-feeding arthropods.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1990 Mar, 56(3), 628 - 39
Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system; Sly LI et al.; The deposition of manganese in a water distribution system with manganese-related "dirty water" problems was studied over a 1-year period . Four monitoring laboratories with Robbins biofilm sampling devices fitted to the water mains were used to correlate the relationship among manganese deposition, the level of manganese in the water, and the chlorination conditions . Manganese deposition occurred by both chemical and microbial processes . Chemical deposition occurred when Mn(II) not removed during water treatment penetrated the filters and entered the distribution system, where it was oxidized by chlorine and chlorine dioxide used for disinfection . Microbial deposition occurred in areas with insufficient chlorination to control the growth of manganese-depositing biofilm . At 0.05 mg of Mn(II) per liter, the chemical deposition rate was much greater than microbial deposition . Significant deposition occurred at 0.03 mg of manganese per liter, and dirty water complaints were not eliminated until manganese levels were continuously less than 0.02 mg/liter and chlorination levels were greater than 0.2 mg/liter . A guideline level of 0.01 mg of manganese per liter is recommended.

Boll Chim Farm, 1990 Mar, 129(3), 122 - 39
Water treatment systems for pharmaceutical purposes; Pregnolato F; Water is the key component in pharmaceutical production and in related activities . Different types of water having different standards are used in pharmaceutical production plants . An accurate definition of the uses, of the chemical-physical and microbiological specifications, of sampling and testing programs is needed for the correct design and management of water production and distribution systems . The types of water taken into consideration are purified water and water for injection, being the most critical ones . The water production systems are described analog with the principles of function and the instrumental controls specifying the key features which guarantee the high standards of chemical-physical and biological quality of the water produced . A trouble-free use of water in the plant is related to the holding and distribution system . An overview view of the design criteria and management of such system is considered . Description of the aspects regarding the validation and monitoring of water treatment systems is given.

Int J Artif Organs, 1990 Mar, 13(3), 162 - 8
Newcastle bone disease in Hong Kong: a study of aluminum associated osteomalacia; Chan MK et al.; We measured serum aluminum concentrations in 104 haemodialysis patients from 3 centres in Hong Kong . We found that the 52 patients dialyzed in unit A had much higher mean aluminium levels (100 micrograms/L) than those from the other two units (61 and 39 micrograms/L respectively) . In unit A, where water treatment by reverse osmosis had been introduced only recently, 30.8% of patients had fractures/looser zones, 46.2% had rugger-jersey spine and 28.8% had skeletal erosions . When these patients were divided into two groups according to whether their serum aluminium concentration was below or above 100 micrograms/l, the latter patients had significantly lower alkaline phosphatase, serum phosphate, and higher total prescribed dose of aluminium hydroxide . It was concluded that both dialysate aluminium and oral aluminium intake seemed to have contributed to the high incidence of osteomalacic fractures among Unit A patients . In eight of these patients serum aluminium increased by more than 150 micrograms/L after four weeks of receiving 1.5 g desferrioxamine twice weekly . Serial X-rays showed that the mean time after dialysis for the appearance of fractures/Looser zones was 72 months . Three patients developed fractures/Looser zones after successful renal transplantation; and it was postulated that the prompt excretion of aluminium permitted increased osteoclastic activity, resulting in fractures in these patients.

Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 1990 Feb, 11(1), 42 - 62
Chlorine dioxide and hemodialysis; Smith RP et al.; In the United States chlorination of potable water supplies has been the standard method of disinfection for about 75 years . In recent times concern has been raised about the propensity of chlorination to introduce potentially carcinogenic trihalomethanes (THM) such as chloroform into finished water . The levels of THM introduced depend on many factors including the quality of the raw water . Numerous community water treatment facilities are experiencing difficulty in meeting current U.S . Environmental Protection Agency standards, and it is likely that the permissible levels may be lowered in the future . An alternative to chlorination which does not generate THM during disinfection is chlorine dioxide, but there are concerns about the acute and chronic toxicity of ClO2 and its disinfection by-products, chlorite and chlorate . Deleterious effects of moderately high levels of these oxychlorines have been demonstrated experimentally on red blood cells, thyroid function, and development in laboratory animals . Adverse effects in controlled prospective studies in humans and in actual use situations in community water supplies have as yet failed to reveal clear evidence of adverse health effects . Among groups who may be at special risk from this suggested alternative are patients who must undergo chronic extracorporeal hemodialysis . The special needs, precautions, and experience to date in regard to finished water are reviewed . Again, very limited human experience has failed to reveal adverse health effects . Further study, caution, and extreme vigilance are indicated, but dialysis patients in carefully controlled facilities may be at no greater risk than the general population.

Am J Nephrol, 1990, 10(2), 123 - 7
Hemolysis associated with hydrogen peroxide at a pediatric dialysis center; Gordon SM et al.; Patients receiving hemodialysis therapy risk exposure to disinfectants used to reduce bacterial burdens in hemodialysis equipment and to reprocess hemodialyzers . From April 29 through May 9, 1988, 3 patients undergoing hemodialysis treatments at a single center were exposed to dialysis fluid that was inadvertently contaminated with hydrogen peroxide (HP) . All patients showed a significant decline in blood hemoglobin level and required packed red blood cell transfusions during the 11-day exposure to HP . Contamination of dialysis fluid may have been due to the inadequate rinsing of HP from the water treatment system (WTS) following its disinfection on April 27-28, 1988 . The failure to check water at point-of-use stations with a sensitive enough test kit after the disinfection for HP permitted patient exposure to contaminated dialysis fluid . To prevent similar occurrences, we recommend that after each disinfection (or other modifications of the WTS), the WTS be adequately rinsed to remove potentially toxic chemicals . Dialysis center personnel need to be aware of the potential effects that each modification or disinfection of the WTS may have on the product water used.

Kidney Int, 1990 Jan, 37(1), 110 - 5
Epidemic hypotension in a dialysis center caused by sodium azide; Gordon SM et al.; The water used for dialysate (dialysis fluid) in hemodialysis centers is produced by water treatment systems (WTS), which require careful and frequent monitoring . On November 3, 1988, nine patients receiving hemodialysis treatments at a single dialysis center suddenly developed hypotension within 30 minutes of onset of dialysis . Eight patients exhibited symptoms and two experienced syncopal episodes; there were no deaths . The incidence of dialysis-associated hypotension occurring within 30 minutes after dialysis onset for these patients was significantly higher during outbreak treatments than during preoutbreak (September 1 through November 2, 1988) treatments, (9 of 9 vs . 0 of 238, P less than 0.00001, Fisher's t-test) . Sodium azide, a potent hypotensive agent, was identified as the probable contaminant within the WTS of the dialysis center at the time of the outbreak because: 1) it was mixed with glycerine as the preservative solution of each of the four ultrafilters that were put on-line in the WTS without rinsing, 12 hours before the outbreak; and 2) high levels of total organic carbons were detected from dialysis water collected at point-of-use sites at the time of the outbreak, suggesting contamination of the WTS with the sodium azide-glycerine preservative solution . To prevent similar occurrences, we recommend that ultrafilters (and other components of the WTS) be rinsed free of potentially toxic chemicals prior to use . Dialysis center personnel need to be aware of the potential affects that each modification of disinfection of the WTS may have upon the product water used to prepare dialysate for patient treatments.

Arch Microbiol, 1990, 154(4), 355 - 61
Anaerobic degradation of acetone by Desulfococcus biacutus spec . nov; Platen H et al.; From anaerobic digestor sludge of a waste water treatment plant, a gram-negative, strictly anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacterium was isolated with acetone as sole organic substrate . The bacterium was characterized as a new species, Desulfococcus biacutus . The strain grew with acetone with doubling times of 72 h to 120 h; the growth yield was 12.0 (+/- 2.1) g x {mol acetone}-1 . Acetone was oxidized completely, and no isopropanol was formed . In labelling studies with 14CO2, cell lipids (including approx . 50% PHB) of acetone-grown cells became labelled 7 times as high as those of 3-hydroxy-butyrate-grown cells . Enzyme studies indicated that acetone was degraded via acetoacetyl-CoA, and that acetone was channeled into the intermediary metabolism after condensation with carbon dioxide to a C4-compound, possibly free acetoacetate . Acetoacetyl-CoA is cleaved by a thiolase reaction to acetyl-CoA which is completely oxidized through the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase pathway . Strain KMRActS was deposited with the Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen, Braunschweig, under the number DSM 5651.

IARC Sci Publ, 1990, (104), 298 - 306
Drinking water and human cancer; McMichael AJ; The relatively low concentrations of the various natural and man-made contaminants of drinking water, together with the methodological problems of obtaining valid and complete exposure histories for individuals and of controlling for confounding factors, have made it difficult for epidemiological studies to detect and estimate risks of cancer . Nearly all studies to date, with some exceptions for the halogenated hydrocarbons, have been at the ecological level . For these and other reasons, quantitative risk assessment of the cancer risks due to this complex environmental exposure remains rudimentary . If, eventually, risks are assessed to be non-trivial, primary prevention could be sought by alternative choices of either methods of water treatment or of water sources . However, since we cannot eliminate all trace carcinogens from our environment, we need simultaneously to minimize both the exposures and the biological impact of such exposures . The latter will require studies of cancer chemoprevention, using biochemical and molecular epidemiological approaches.

Nauchnye Doki Vyss Shkoly Biol Nauki, 1990, (1), 101 - 9
{An evaluation in the Ames test of the mutagenicity of the sewage and industrial effluents from the Baikal Paper and Pulp Combine}; Glazer VM et al.; The use of the Ames test for the analysis of industrial effluents from cellulose production and sewage waters varying in the degree of purification with the aid of a metabolic activation system from rat and fish liver with Salmonella strains TA 98 and TA 100 revealed a strong direct mutagenic effect of strain TA 100 in samples after cellulose chlorination . The multistage procedure of sewage water purification allows to remove practically completely the mutagenic substances . A simultaneous study of cytotoxic effects of industrial effluents on mammalian cells shows that the mutagenic activity is exhibited in not toxic concentrations . The urgency of a regular biological control over the genotoxicity of industrial effluents from the sulfate production of cellulose is under discussion.

Pediatrie, 1990, 45(4), 237 - 9
{Immediate cooling with water: emergency treatment of burns}; Latarjet J; Experimental data have demonstrated that prolonged immediate cooling with cold water is the best first-aid treatment for burn injuries . However in France, this treatment is rarely applied; instead old, inefficient and aggravating methods are still very popular . Pediatricians must help to change this practice by recommending immediate cold water treatment for burns in children.

Nephrol Dial Transplant, 1990, 5(1), 45 - 53
Value of serum aluminium monitoring in dialysis patients: a multicentre study; D'Haese PC et al.; The clinical relevance of regular serum aluminium monitoring in dialysis patients was investigated in a multicentre study by 6-monthly determination of the serum aluminium during 4 consecutive years . In a group totalling 1193 patients, a striking decrease of mean serum aluminium was observed the last 2 years of the study . This phenomenon was accompanied by a substantial reduction of the prescribed dose of aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) and its partial replacement by calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and/or magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) . Under this policy serum phosphate control remained satisfactory . In all the centres, water treatment was found to be adequate, yielding dialysate aluminium around 2 micrograms/l . Dialysis patients with clinically overt liver disease showed a significantly greater median serum aluminium concentration than that observed in a control dialysis population . Compared to the latter group, the median serum aluminium concentration of dialysis patients with diabetes mellitus did not differ significantly . Results further indicated that patients with biopsy-proven osteomalacia presented a significantly greater median serum aluminium compared to that of patients without osteomalacia . We demonstrated that a serum aluminium of 60 micrograms/l provides a relatively sensitive (82%) and specific (86%) index for the detection of aluminium-related bone disease (ARBD) . Provided the aluminium determinations are performed by a qualified laboratory, serum monitoring in dialysis patients (a) allows the safer use of aluminium-containing phosphate binders, and (b) is of value in the diagnosis of overload/toxicity.

J Chem Technol Biotechnol, 1990, 49(4), 395 - 404
Metal recovery using chitosan; Onsoyen E et al.; Chitosan is a natural polycationic polymer which possesses valuable properties as a metal recovering and water purifying agent . Applications are waste water treatment for heavy metal and radio isotope removal and valuable metal recovery, potable water purification for reduction of unwanted metals, agriculture--controlled release of trace metals essential to plant growth, food--complex binding of iron in precooked food to reduce 'warmed-over flavour' . The interactions of metals with chitosan are complex, probably simultaneously dominated by adsorption, ion-exchange and chelation . To study this it is of utmost importance to work with well characterized chitosans . This has been a problem as available characterizing methodology is limited . Degree of polymerization and deacetylation and the distribution of acetyl groups along the polymer chain is of crucial importance for chitosan metal interacting characteristics . Making chemical derivatives is a way to alter the metal interacting characteristics of chitosan . Chitosan possesses general coagulant/flocculant characteristics towards bio-molecules and surfaces.

Bioprocess Technol, 1990, 9, 263 - 86
Separation processes in biotechnology . Ion-exchange processes; Shuey CD; Through the use of several differentiating mechanisms, ion exchangers can separate ionic and nonionic materials, solutions containing only ionic species, and even completely nonionic mixtures . Although the mechanisms are distinct in their mode of operation, the resin characteristics that influence the results are largely the same . A practical understanding of the resin properties involved is all that is necessary to begin to use ion-exchange resins successfully . Ion exchange owes most of its history to water treatment, which has provided the economic and technological driving force in the past for the development of improved resins . However, specialty applications such as those in biotechnology are steadily becoming major factors in industry, perhaps not in shear volumes of resin used, but certainly in the value added by the process . The field of biotechnology no doubt holds many of the exciting new applications for ion exchange.

Am J Public Health, 1989 Dec, 79(12), 1633 - 7
Back-country water treatment to prevent giardiasis; Ongerth JE et al.; This study was conducted to provide current information on the effectiveness of water treatment chemicals and filters for control of Giardia cysts in areas where treated water is not available . Four filters and seven chemical treatments were evaluated for both clear and turbid water at 10 degrees C . Three contact disinfection devices were also tested for cyst inactivation . Filters were tested with 1-liter volumes of water seeded with 3 x 10(4) cysts of G . lamblia produced in gerbils inoculated with in vitro cultured trophozoites; the entire volume of filtrate was examined for cyst passage . Chemical treatments were evaluated at concentrations specified by the manufacturer and for contact times that might be expected of hikers (30 minutes) and campers (eight hours, i.e., overnight) . Two of the four filter devices tested were 100 percent effective for Giardia cyst removal . Of the other two filters, one was 90 percent effective and the other considerably less effective . Among the seven disinfection treatments, the iodine-based chemicals were all significantly more effective than the chlorine-based chemicals . None of the chemical treatments achieved 99.9 percent cyst inactivation with only 30-minute contact . After an eight-hour contact each of the iodine but none of the chlorine preparations achieved at least 99.9 percent cyst inactivation . None of the contact disinfection devices provided appreciable cyst inactivation . Heating water to at least 70 degrees C for 10 minutes was an acceptable alternative treatment.

Fundam Appl Toxicol, 1989 Oct, 13(3), 493 - 9
Effect in the rat of the interaction of dichloromaleic acid and carbon tetrachloride on renal and hepatic function; Christenson WR et al.; Water purification generates a variety of chlorinated contaminants, one of which is dichloromaleic acid (DCMA) . Exposure to this compound is likely to occur in combination with other drinking water pollutants, some of which are hepatotoxic . This study was designed to examine the interactive effects of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), a known hepatotoxin, with DCMA on liver and kidney function in the Sprague-Dawley rat . Administration of a single dose of DCMA (200-400 mg/kg, ip) caused modest dose-dependent increases in alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and plasma urea nitrogen, as well as a marked depletion of nonprotein sulfhydryls (NPSH) in the liver, but not the kidney, by 24 hr . Pretreatment with inducers (phenobarbital or 3-methylcholanthrene) or an inhibitor (SKF 525A) of cytochrome P-450 activity failed to alter the response observed with DCMA alone . Alterations in 24-hr urine volume, osmolality, and water consumption also were observed . DCMA-mediated changes in plasma urea nitrogen and NPSH were reduced in magnitude with coadministration of CCl4 (1 ml/kg, ip), while anticipated CCl4-induced increases in ALT and AST were reduced with coexposure to DCMA . Renal slice experiments indicated that DCMA-treated rats were less able to accumulate the organic anion p-aminohippurate (PAH), whereas DCMA had no effect on accumulation of the organic cation tetraethylammonium (TEA) . The combination of CCl4 and DCMA produced only additive effects on organic ion accumulation . These results suggest hepatic interaction possibly related to the metabolism of CCl4 and DCMA, resulting in renal and hepatic toxicity diminished from that observed with exposure to either agent alone.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1989 Sep, 55(9), 2230 - 41
Disinfection of model indicator organisms in a drinking water pilot plant by using PEROXONE; Wolfe RL et al.; PEROXONE is an advanced oxidation process generated by combining ozone and hydrogen peroxide . This process stimulates the production of hydroxyl radicals, which have been shown to be superior to ozone for the destruction of some organic contaminants . In this study, pilot-scale experiments were conducted to evaluate the microbicidal effectiveness of PEROXONE and ozone against three model indicator groups . Escherichia coli and MS2 coliphage were seeded into the influent to the preozonation contactors of a pilot plant simulating conventional water treatment and were exposed to four ozone dosages (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/liter), four hydrogen peroxide/ozone (H2O2/O3) weight ratios (0, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.8), and four contact times (4, 5, 12, and 16 min) in two source waters--Colorado River water and state project water--of different quality . The removal of heterotrophic plate count bacteria was also monitored . Results of the study indicated that the microbicidal activity of PEROXONE was greatly affected by the applied ozone dose, H2O2/O3 ratio, contact time, source water quality, and type of microorganism tested . At contact times of 5 min or less, ozone alone was a more potent bactericide than PEROXONE at all H2O2/O3 ratios tested . However, this decrease in the bactericidal potency of PEROXONE was dramatic only as the H2O2/O3 ratio was increased from 0.5 to 0.8 . The fact that the bactericidal activity of PEROXONE generally decreased with increasing H2O2/O3 ratios was thought to be related to the lower ozone residuals produced . The viricidal activity of PEROXONE and ozone was comparable at all of the H2O2/O3 ratios . Heterotrophic plate count bacteria were the most resistant group of organisms . Greater inactivation of E . coli and MS2 was observed in Colorado River water than in state project water and appeared to result from differences in the turbidity and alkalinity of the two waters . Regardless of source water, greater than 4.5 log10 of E . coli and MS2 was inactivated at an applied ozone dosage of 2.0 mg/liter (and a 4-min contact time) when the H2O2/O3 ratio was less than or equal to 0.5 . Comparative disinfection experiments indicated that free chlorine was the most potent bactericidal agent, followed (in descending order of effectiveness) by ozone, PEROXONE, and chloramines . These results indicate that the PEROXONE process must be optimized for each source water to achieve microbicidal effectiveness.

Adv Dent Res, 1989 Sep, 3(2), 154 - 60
Changes in dental fluorosis following an adjustment to the fluoride concentration of Hong Kong's water supplies; Evans RW; In June, 1978, the fluoride concentration in Hong Kong water supplies was reduced from 1.0 to 0.7 mg/L . The objectives of this study were (1) to determine whether, as a result of this minor adjustment, a consequent reduction in the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis came about, and (2) to determine whether dental fluorosis develops during enamel secretion and primary mineralization or during the maturation stage of enamel development . Dental fluorosis was assessed by Dean's community fluorosis index (CFI) on upper central incisors in 2382 children aged from 7 (exposed to 0.7 mg/L only) to 13 years . The children were selected from four districts served with drinking water by four different water treatment stations . Differences in the distributions of dental fluorosis scores across ages were significant in all districts . The susceptibility to fluoride was assessed statistically through a series of analyses whereby the fluoride concentration in the drinking water (both coincident with enamel secretion and periods of enamel maturation) was correlated with CFI . It was concluded (1) that CFI values were reduced following a minor adjustment to the fluoride concentration in drinking water, (2) that dental fluorosis develops during the maturation stage of enamel development, (3) that the development of dental fluorosis may occur over a period of 16 to 24 months, commencing from 12 to 32 months following enamel secretion, and (4) that Dean's index is a suitable instrument for monitoring the effects on dental fluorosis of minor adjustments to the fluoride concentration in drinking water.

Med Tekh, 1989 Sep-Oct, (5), 24 - 7
{Preparation of water at kidney centers using separating counterosmosis equipment}; Savrikov EV et al.; A water treatment AKBA-I unit intended for the renal centers was tried . The unit includes a clarifier, an adsorber, a softener, a reflux osmotic separator and electronic systems for the control of hydrodynamic processes . The trials demonstrated the unit to be highly effective as regards the removal from water of salts of hardness, of iron, potassium, oxidizable substances and active chlorine . The pH value of the filtrate (7.1-7.4) appeared to meet the requirements made during the preparation of a dialyzing solution . The concentration of sodium ions in the filtrate was 0.75 mg.eq/l, which did not influence the concentration of sodium ions in the dailyzing solution during its preparation from dry concentrate . During operation of the unit, the selectivity of the APO membrane in the operating mode was defined . It amounted to 85%.

Sangyo Igaku, 1989 Sep, 31(5), 355 - 62
{Health care of workers engaged in waste water treatment . 1) The exposure conditions to organic solvents in workers engaged in waste water treatment}; Ikatsu H et al.; In the investigation of the exposure conditions to organic solvents of workers in 35 waste water treatment facilities, it was found that these workers treated various kinds of solvents . Almost all of the facilities treated chloroform, acetone, n-hexane, methanol and carbon tetrachloride . The average exposure concentration of the workers was, however, low . Exposure concentration to organic solvents (chloroform, xylene and carbon tetrachloride) was evaluated in one of the facilities . The average concentration of the respective solvents in the workers did not exceed the threshold limit value of Japan, but the concentration calculated on the basis of combined exposure exceeded the threshold limit value . On the other hand, high concentrations of organic solvents were detected in the room where the solvents were introduced but not in the working rooms, indicating that the workers engaged in waste water treatment were mainly exposed to organic solvents in the former room where they sorted and mixed the solvents and placed them in the incinerator . In conclusion, improvement in working conditions and health care for workers engaged in waste water treatment facilities should be made in order to prevent workers from becoming intoxicated by organic solvents.

Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol, 1989 Aug, 65(2), 131 - 46
Comparative effects of captopril and enalapril on the progression of chronic renal disease in partially nephrectomized rats; Fettman MJ et al.; Comparative effects of the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors captopril and enalapril on progression of chronic renal disease was studied in 3/4 nephrectomized rats . Rats were divided into sham and nephrectomized groups, and treated with plain water or water containing captopril (150 mg/liter) or enalapril (50 mg/liter) . Evaluations were made 4 weeks before and 0, 4, 8, and 10 weeks after nephrectomy . Endogenous creatinine clearance decreased in drug-treated, nephrectomized rats to values less than sham controls, but remained greater than water-treated rats . Significant (P less than 0.05) proteinuria developed 4 weeks post-nephrectomy in water-treated rats, 8 weeks post-nephrectomy in captopril-treated rats, but did not develop in enalapril treated rats . Regression analysis of carbamylated plasma protein values vs plasma creatinine revealed significant (P less than 0.05) relationships only in the water-treated, nephrectomized rats from weeks 0 through 8, but were otherwise unaffected by treatment . Both drugs resulted in significantly (P less than 0.05) improved scores for renal histologic lesions as compared to water treatment . Modifications of proteinuria in captopril and enalapril-treated rats occurred prior to onset of changes in systolic blood pressure, which was significantly elevated only in water-treated, nephrectomized rats at weeks 8 and 10 . We conclude that angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors may ameliorate progression of experimental renal disease through intrarenal effects, independent of modulation of systemic blood pressure, and that enalapril may be superior to captopril in some regards.

Biomed Tech (Berl), 1989 Jun, 34(6), 139 - 42
{Ability to remove pesticides in the production of dialysis water (1)}; Becker FF et al.; In many cases it can be demonstrated that the amount of plant protective and plant treatment substances (pesticides) in drinking water exceeds the permitted levels of the drinking water ordinance which will come into effect on October 1st, 1989 . Since some of these components are of toxicological relevance, an investigation was done on how far pesticides are removed during conventional purification of dialysis water, and especially during reverse osmosis . The retention rates of a reverse osmosis plant for 14 different pesticides applied in different concentrations and compositions were determined . Almost all of the substances examined were retained with an effectiveness of 92-98% . The elimination efficiency did not depend on the initial concentration of the pesticides . After an initial phase of 50 h duration, the concentration in the treated water reached a constant value which no longer changed even after more than 700 h . In part 1 of this contribution at first the fundamentals of dyalisis water purification are reviewed and a selection of the pesticides to be investigated is carried out . In addition experimental set up and procedure are described.

Sci Total Environ, 1989 Jun, 81-82, 249 - 56
Anion exchange as a potential method for removal of humus in drinking water treatment; Hongve D; Removal of humus by anionic exchange is a potential process for small waterworks in Norway . The interaction between humic substances and a strong base anion exchange resin has been studied and the results are used for characterization of the humic substances . Thirty per cent of the organic matter were removed from the water during the first six seconds of contact with the resin . This fraction had a higher negative charge and lower molecular weight than the average for the water sample . With increasing contact time, fractions with a decreasing charge density and increasing colour and molecular weight were removed . The unabsorbed DOC fraction had a net positive charge . The anion exchange process results in a reduction in pH, and dissolved iron and aluminium are transformed from organic complexes to inorganic species . This may represent an obstacle for the practical use of the process.

Am J Kidney Dis, 1989 Jun, 13(6), 465 - 8
Correction of microcytosis following elimination of an occult source of aluminum contamination of dialysate; Abreo K et al.; A higher prevalence of aluminum-associated microcytic anemia was noted in hemodialysis unit A (n = 67) compared to unit B (n = 39) . This finding could not be explained by differences in the aluminum content of reverse osmosis (RO) water or intake of antacids containing aluminum by patients in the two units . An intermittent source of aluminum contamination was suspected when water aluminum and total dissolved solutes (TDS) were measured at several sites in the water treatment facility of unit A . A one-way valve that maintained unidirectional flow in an RO bypass circuit was found missing . Intermittent pressure changes in this circuit altered the direction of water flow causing mixing of partially purified water with RO water . Installation of the valve stopped contamination and resulted in a decrease in plasma aluminum concentration from 183 +/- 12 micrograms/L to 76 +/- 7.3 micrograms/L, erythrocyte aluminum concentration from 210 +/- 31 micrograms/L to 61 +/- 9 micrograms/L and microcytosis from 58% to 8% in patients (n = 48) when measured 6 months later . Because contamination was missed in spite of water testing at the RO site, these findings underscore the importance of measuring water aluminum and TDS content at the dialysis stations . Frequent water testing at dialysis stations, familiarity with the design of water treatment facilities, and recognition of aluminum overload can lead to early detection and correction if similar types of aluminum contamination should occur.

Rev Saude Publica, 1989 Jun, 23(3), 183 - 8
{A teaching-learning experience: changes in beliefs and behaviors in the management of drinking water}; Rancich AM et al.; It was studied a change in the children's beliefs and behaviour with regard to their handling of drinking-water by using a teaching-learning experience by means of microscopic observation of polluted water . A structured pre-test on problem-solving were administered to 63 6th and 7th grade elementary school children (28 boys and 35 girls) . An of these children came from an underprivileged population in the north of Buenos Aires, Argentina . Their average age was of 12 years 8 months and SD = 1 year 1 month . Each adequate aspect of their behaviour scored one point: hygiene and protection of containers for collection and storage, water treatment (boiling or the addition of chlorine) and the conservation period . The best beliefs ("to avoid the water contamination that produces illness") scored two points . The number of pupils that changed their beliefs and and behaviour in the post-test was established and the significant difference was found by means of Chi square test (X2) . The children did not, in general, improve their behaviour or beliefs . They maintained adequate hygienic behaviour, but did not put into practice the protection of the containers used for the collection . Behaviour regarding storage was still inadequate . The pupils did acquire correct behaviour as regards storage was still inadequate . The pupils did acquire correct behaviour as regards treatment by the boiling of water or the addition of chlorine (P less than 0.01) . However, the beliefs involved did not change.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Vet Rec, 1989 May 6, 124(18), 479 - 82
Accidental contamination of the public water supply at Lowermoor, Camelford: an assessment of the possible veterinary consequences; Allen WM et al.; As a result of the delivery of 20 tons of concentrated aluminum sulphate solution into the wrong part of the Lowermoor water treatment works the water supplies of 20,000 people and many thousands of cows, sheep, pigs and poultry became contaminated with aluminium, copper, zinc and lead . When the water mains were flushed into the rivers Allen and Camel many fish were killed by the high concentrations of aluminium . However, there appear to have been no detrimental effects on farm live-stock; this was either because the animals were likely to have ingested less of the toxic elements from the water than they ingest with normal components of their diet, including soil, or because the abnormally high intakes lasted for only a short time.

Salud Publica Mex, 1989 May-Jun, 31(3), 292 - 8
{Drinking water and garbage: customs and beliefs among schoolchildren of a marginal population}; Ferrarini SO et al.; A study of 80 children from 6th and 7th grades was conducted to determine their beliefs and behaviours about drinking-water and garbage management . The children come, in their totality, from a poor suburban population of the north of Buenos Aires . The survey showed that most of the children kept some drinking-water provision at home . Therefore, they had to collect, treat, and store the water . The pupils had correct knowledge about the process of contamination and some adequate behaviours concerning the hygiene of collection containers, but also showed inadequate conceptions about the protection of such containers and water treatment . The children reported inadequate behaviours and incorrect beliefs about the elimination of garbage . These results establish the need for teaching-learning experiences designed to reinforce correct knowledge and behaviours and modify the incorrect ones.

Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed, 1989 May, 188(1-2), 1 - 34
{Ground water improvement in the Ruhr--then and now}; Schmidt WD; The waterworks founded during the second half of the last century obtained the raw water exclusively from the Ruhr-valley; they were responsible for the water supply of the industrial area situated on the right of the river Rhine . The rapidly growing water demand, limited possibilities in water catchment, the very bad quality of the Ruhr-water and epidemic typhoid fever required new methods in the water supply . Consequently, the Hygiene-Institute of Gelsenkirchen was founded and a new method of water production developed: the artificial ground water recharge . In 1913 two associations were founded: the Ruhrtalsperrenverein responsible for the provision of water quantity, and the Ruhrverband, responsible for the improvement of water quality . These associations formed the essential base for the rapid development of the so-called "Revier" . In spite of the excellent elimination of bacteria by artificial ground water recharge-operating according to the principle of slow sand filtration-a disinfection of drinking water with chlorine became necessary; this disinfection was started in 1910 by the waterworks of the Ruhr . The construction of reservoirs and clarification plants ameliorated temporary the overall situation in water resources management . These improvements were, however, destroyed by consequences arising from the rapid economical growth before the second world war and the following break-down . After this period, great efforts were necessary to enlarge the reservoirs and increase the capacity of sewage plants . The waterworks pre-purified the water from the Ruhr before infiltration into the underground in order to increase the quantity and quality of the recharged water . Downstream, the number of sewage plants increased; a more and more refined method of analysis indicates now the pollution load of the raw ater and signalized trends which lead to further treatment measures or to the change of existing ones like substitution of chlorine by chlorine-dioxide . The artificial ground water recharge-because of its many advantages-should always be the nucleus of water treatment of the river Ruhr . For the sake of the natural character of water catchment and in order not to degrade the waterworks to mere "water-manufacturers", we are all requested to handle thoroughly and cautiously water-endangering substances.

Clin Chim Acta, 1989 Apr 28, 181(1), 75 - 80
Uptake of trihalomethanes by patients during hemodialysis; Cailleux A et al.; Trihalomethanes (THM) present in tap water were also found in dialysis fluid because they were not eliminated by water treatment . THM, absorbed through the dialyser membranes, increased considerably in blood and in expired air of patients on hemodialysis during the dialysis sessions . The uptake of THM during each dialysis session was about 1 mg.

J Chromatogr, 1989 Apr 19, 466, 233 - 49
Chemical changes of organic compounds in chlorinated water . XVI . Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric studies of reactions of tricyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with hypochlorite in dilute aqueous solution; Onodera S et al.; The products of aqueous chlorination reactions of tricyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (fluorene, carbazole, dibenzofuran, anthracene, phenanthrene and some methyl derivatives) with hypochlorite have been determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . They included chloro-substituted, oxygenated (quinones) and hydroxylated (phenols) compounds, and products of addition which were readily formed at ambient temperature . The extent of the reactions was shown to depend on the chlorine dose, the solution pH, the initial concentrations of both compounds and the structures . Monochlorinated compounds and quinones were shown to be present in chlorinated water under the conditions utilized for water treatment.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1989 Apr, 55(4), 912 - 21
Nonphotosynthetic pigmented bacteria in a potable water treatment and distribution system; Reasoner DJ et al.; The occurrence of pigmented bacteria in potable water, from raw source water through treatment to distribution water, including dead-end locations, was compared at sample sites in a large municipal water system . Media used to enumerate heterotrophic bacteria and differentiate pigmented colonies were standard method plate count (SPC), m-SPC, and R2A agars, incubated up to 7 days at 35 degrees C . The predominant pigmented bacteria at most sample locations were yellow and orange, with a small incidence of pink organisms at the flowing distribution site . Seasonal variations were seen, with the yellow and orange organisms shifting in dominance . SPC agar was the least productive medium for both heterotroph counts and pigmented bacteria differentiation . At the flowing distribution site, percentages of pigmented bacteria on SPC medium ranged from 2.3 to 9.67 times less than on m-SPC and from 2.3 to 9.86 times less than on R2A . At the same site, seasonal trends in the percentage of pigmented bacteria were the same for m-SPC and R2A media, and the highest and lowest percentages occurred in the fall and winter, respectively . At site 6, there appeared to be an inverse relationship between the yellow and orange pigmented groups, but upon analysis, this did not hold and all correlations between yellow and orange pigmented bacteria were positive . The study results indicate that pigmented bacteria could readily be detected by using plate counting media developed for heterotroph enumeration in potable waters with incubation periods of 7 days . Pigmented bacteria can be used as an additional marker for monitoring changes in water quality . High numbers of heterotrophs, including pigmented forms, were found at dead-end locations, usually in the absence of a free chlorine residual and when the water temperature was greater than 16 degrees C . The association of some pigmented bacteria with nosocomial and other infections raises concern that the organisms may have originated from the potable water supply . High levels of pigmented bacteria could pose an increased health risk to immunologically compromised individuals . Therefore, the bacterial quality of the distribution water should be controlled to prevent the development of high concentrations of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, including the pigmented forms.

J Antimicrob Chemother, 1989 Mar, 23 Suppl C, 197 - 203
Urinary recovery and tolerability of FCE 22101 following single intravenous administration under restricted and high fluid intake; Sassella D et al.; The urinary recovery and tolerability of FCE 22101, a broad spectrum injectable penem, were investigated in a multicentre single-blind randomized crossover study of 60 healthy male volunteers . Single 1 g doses of FCE 22101 or placebo were given by intravenous bolus at weekly intervals . FCE 22101 was given either after intake of 750 ml water (treatment A) or after 8 h of water restriction (treatment B) . Placebo was given under water restriction (treatment C) . Urine samples obtained at timed intervals were assayed for FCE 22101 and its metabolites P1 and P2 by HPLC . The 24 h urinary recoveries of the parent drug and its metabolites were similar after treatments A and B . Mean recoveries +/- S.D were 29 +/- 13% (FCE 22101), 31 +/- 12% (P1) and 7 +/- 2% (P2) of the dose . Transient suprapubic pain or dysuria, or both, were reported by two subjects after treatment A and by six subjects after treatment B . Symptoms were associated with low urine volumes at 0-2 h and low urinary recovery of FCE 22101 and metabolite P1.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1989 Feb, 55(2), 503 - 6
Isolation of enterovirus and reovirus from sewage and treated effluents in selected Puerto Rican communities; Dahling DR et al.; Sewage treatment plant effluents were surveyed for viral contributions to gastroenteritis outbreaks in Puerto Rico . Of the 15 sewage treatment plants studied, all discharged their effluents upstream from water treatment plant intakes . No base-line data on the degree of viral challenge to these sewage treatment plants or the subsequent reduction of viruses before discharge existed . Enterovirus counts were generally much higher than those found in the continental United States . At four plants, viruses in the incoming sewage exceeded 100,000 PFU/liter, and one of these, a trickling filter plant, was discharging 24,000 PFU/liter to receiving waters . Virus identification showed that more than 80% of the enterovirus isolates were coxsackievirus B5 . These overwhelming viral numbers pointed to defects in the sewage treatment processes . Without reasonable barriers to protect receiving waters, several of the downstream communities were using raw waters that posed extraordinary demands on the ability of their water treatment plants to supply virologically safe drinking water.

J Pediatr, 1989 Feb, 114(2), 218 - 24
Human milk and the rate of small intestinal mucosal recovery in protracted diarrhea; Shulman RJ et al.; STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine whether human milk accelerates the recovery rate of injured small intestinal mucosa . DESIGN: Randomized, controlled trial . SETTING: County and nonprofit, private urban hospitals . PATIENTS: Moderately to severely malnourished infants less than 6 months of age who required parenteral nutrition for treatment of protracted diarrhea . INTERVENTIONS: Either a human milk preparation (n = 7) or sterile water (n = 9) was administered by continuous nasogastric feeding (14 mL/kg/d) over a 2-week study period while the infants received parenteral nutrition . MEASUREMENTS and MAIN RESULTS: Small intestine perfusion studies and biopsies were performed at the beginning and end of the study . Age, duration of prior illness, severity of malnutrition, glucose and water absorption, disaccharidase activities, atrophy of villi, and nutritional intake were comparable in both groups of infants . At the end of the 2-week study, improvement toward normal sucrase activity and intraepithelial lymphocytes was found in significantly fewer infants in the milk group than in the water group . No differences were noted in glucose and water absorption or in lactase and maltase activities as a function of the milk versus water treatment . CONCLUSIONS: Human milk did not accelerate functional recovery of the small intestinal mucosaPIP: Physicians studied 16 moderately to severely malnourished infants 6 months old who had severe diarrhea for 2 weeks and did not gain weight . After admitting the infants, they administered total parenteral nutrition (TPN) to the infants through a central vein . As the infants began receiving TPN, they were randomly assigned to receive either banked human milk or sterile water by continuous nasogastric feeding for 2 weeks . In addition, before beginning nasogastric feedings and at the conclusion of the study, a physician performed a peroral biopsy of the small intestine . Small intestine perfusion studies were also done in the beginning and at the end of the 2 week period . More infants in the human milk group than in the sterile water group had 25% decrease in sucrase activity (p.02) . Researchers noted that the villus/crypt ratio was similar in both groups at the beginning of the study and improved only in the sterile water group (p.002), but this was not a function of treatment . Additionally, more infants in the human milk group had an increase in the intraepithelial lymphocyte count than those in the sterile water group (milk, 5/7; water, 1/8; p.03) . On the other hand, the data demonstrate that no differences existed in glucose and water absorption or in lactase and maltase activities as a function of the milk versus water treatment . Therefore, the results of this study suggest that human milk does not benefit small intestine mucosa recovery . Research to determine the effect of predigested formulas or specific factors in fresh human milk on the rate of mucosal recovery is needed .

J Burn Care Rehabil, 1989 Jan-Feb, 10(1), 74 - 8
Automated hydrotherapy pool water treatment system; Devlin PM et al.; An automated hydrotherapy water treatment system was described that controls chemical pumps that maintain the pool's water pH and chlorine levels at the designated set points, regardless of the bather load . This system consists of sensing electrodes, a controller, and positive displacement pumps . Because outbreaks of waterborne infections have never been reported in facilities in which the pool water has been continuously maintained at pH 7.2 to 7.8 with a free available chlorine level of at least 1.0 ppm, we recommend that this type of water treatment system be installed in all public pools.

Hum Toxicol, 1989 Jan, 8(1), 5 - 9
Scalp hair as an indicator of aluminium exposure: comparison to bone and plasma; Wilhelm M et al.; 1 . Aluminium concentrations were measured in hair, plasma and bone samples from different groups of chronic renal insufficient patients and from a control group (75 healthy volunteers plus 21 deceased subjects) . A cross-sectional study with 40 haemodialysis patients and two longitudinal studies were undertaken, the first comprising of 12 home haemodialysis patients and the second 16 patients undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) . 2 . Before introduction of water treatment by reverse osmosis, the hair aluminium levels of home haemodialysis patients were elevated compared to controls . Aluminium in the hair of all other groups were within the normal range . Hair aluminium levels were not related to the daily aluminium intake, nor to the cumulative aluminium intake, nor to bone and plasma aluminium concentrations . 3 . Plasma aluminium concentrations in all patients were higher than in the controls . Dialysis without reverse osmosis water treatment increased aluminium plasma levels . After installation of reverse osmosis units there was a decrease in the aluminium concentrations in plasma . In CAPD patients insignificant increases in the aluminium levels in plasma were observed . When low contaminated dialysis fluid was available the plasma aluminium concentrations returned to the initial level . 4 . Aluminium concentrations in bone were increased in renal insufficient patients compared with controls . Aluminium bone content increased with increasing cumulative aluminium intake by phosphate binding therapy . 5 . Hair analysis is of very limited value for the diagnosis of aluminium exposure . Bone analysis is suitable for the assessment of the individual body burden.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1989, 28(1), 27 - 38
Carcinogenesis in rats by nitrosodialkylureas containing methyl and ethyl groups given by gavage and in drinking water; Lijinsky W et al.; The carcinogenic effects in male and female F344 rats of four nitrosodialkylureas containing methyl or ethyl groups have been compared by two modes of administration, gavage in oil solution or dissolved in drinking water . Weekly doses of 20 and 40 mumol were given to each rat by either route and treatment lasted usually 30 wk, resulting in a total dose per rat of 0.6 or 1.2 mmol . Nitrosodimethylurea and nitroso-1-methyl-3-ethylurea gave rise primarily to tumors of the nervous system, whereas nitrosodiethylurea and nitroso-1-ethyl-3-methylurea gave rise to tumors of the mammary gland, lung, intestinal tract, nervous system, and testicular mesotheliomas . The effect of nitrosodimethylurea was weaker than that of the other three compounds, as measured by rate of mortality with tumors . Drinking water treatment was less effective than treatment by gavage, by the same criterion . The tumorigenic effects paralleled those of the corresponding monoalkylnitrosourea, suggesting the presence in the target organs of receptors for which ethylnitrosoureas or methylnitrosoureas, respectively, have affinity.

Nephron, 1989, 52(3), 253 - 8
Accumulation of aluminium in patients with acute renal failure; Davenport A et al.; Serum aluminium was monitored in 19 patients admitted with acute oligo-anuric renal failure . The maximum serum aluminium obtained during the course of treatment was greater (p less than 0.05) in 4 patients treated by haemodialysis alone, mean +/- sem 3.78 +/- 0.71 mumol/l than in 4 patients treated only by haemofiltration, 0.60 +/- 0.22 greater (p less than 0.05) during treatment with haemodialysis, 2.7 +/- 0.62 mumol/l than during treatment with haemofiltration, 1.36 +/- 0.15 mumol/l . There was a significant positive correlation between the maximum serum aluminium during treatment with haemodialysis and the number of hours of haemodialysis given (r = 0.76, p less than 0.001) . There was no significant increase in serum aluminium due to the administration of human albumin solutions . The aluminium content of dialysate water represents a major source of aluminium in patients with acute renal failure; prevention by reverse-osmosis water purification is recommended.

Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 1989, 80, 209 - 30
{Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons in groundwater}; Hanert HH; The contribution deals with the following topics: --Microbiological in situ investigations of polluted ground water aquifers in order to develop a concept for biological remediation . --Removal of organic and halogenated organic compounds from ground water using methods which are common in the drinking water treatment (sand-fastfiltering, immobilized reactors) . --Removal of organic and halogenated organic compounds from ground water using methods which are common in sewage treatment (activated sludge, suspension reactors) . The conclusion has been drawn that there are many microbiological methods existing which can be used to remove the above contaminants from soil and ground water environments.

J Exp Pathol, 1989 Fall, 4(4), 227 - 35
Ethanol treatment inhibits the development of diethylnitrosamine-induced tumors in rats; Mandl J et al.; Effect of ethanol (20% in drinking water) or acetone (1% in drinking water) treatment was investigated on N-diethylnitrosamine (DEN), acetyl-aminofluorene (AAF) and partial hepatectomy (PH) induced hepatic tumors in rats . Simultaneously with the morphological detection of foci and nodules in the liver of the sacrificed rats, the activities of isozymes of cytochrome P450IIE gene subfamily responsible for the oxidation of ethanol or acetone (as aniline hydroxylase) and also the activity of aminopyrine N-demethylase were determined . Nodules could be detected after DEN, AAF and PH treatment with and without combination with acetone, however nodules did not developed in ethanol treated animals even 6 months after the DEN injection . As expected acetone or ethanol selectively increased the activity of aniline hydroxylase without a general induction of P-450 enzymes . It is suggested that the induction of P-450IIE isoenzymes per se is not connected to the preventive effect of ethanol on DEN induced carcinogenesis.

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