J Chromatogr A, 2001 Mar 16, 911(2), 225 - 34 Simultaneous quantification of neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals and pesticides at the low-ng/l level in surface and waste water; Ollers S et al.; A new analytical method is presented that allows simultaneous determination of neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals and pesticides in natural waters . The compounds investigated include frequently used pharmaceuticals, i.e., the anti-epileptic carbamazepine, four analgesic/anti-flammatory drugs (ibuprofen, diclofenac, ketoprofen and naproxen) and the lipid regulator clofibric acid and important pesticides including triazines, acetamides and phenoxy acids . Sample enrichment was achieved in one step with a newly developed solid-phase extraction procedure using the Waters Oasis HLB sorbent . The neutral compounds were analyzed by GC-MS in a first step, and then the acidic compounds after derivatization with diazomethane . Relative recoveries using isotope labeled internal standards were between 71 and 118% and the detection limits were in the range of 1 to 10 ng/l in drinking water, surface water and waste water treatment plant effluents (precision: 1-15%) . The developed analytical method proved to be very durable during a 3-month field study and the target analytes were detected in concentrations of 5-3,500 ng/l in waste water treatment plant effluents, river water and lake water. Sci Total Environ, 2001 Feb 21, 267(1-3), 23 - 31 The importance of ligand speciation in environmental research: a case study; Sillanpaa M et al.; The speciations of EDTA and DTPA in process, waste and river waters are modelled and simulated, specifically to the mode of occurrence in the pulp and paper mill effluents and subsequently in receiving waters . Due to relatively short residence times in bleaching process and waste water treatment and slow exchange kinetics, it is expected that the thermodynamic equilibrium is not necessarily reached . Therefore, the initial speciation plays a key role . As such, the simulations have been extended to the process waters of the pulp and paper industry taking into account estimated average conditions . The results reveal that the main species are; Mn and Ca complexes of EDTA and DTPA in pulp mill process waters; Fe(III) and Mn complexes of EDTA and DTPA in waste waters; Fe(III) and Zn complexes of EDTA and DTPA in receiving waters . It is also shown how the increasing concentration of complexing agents effects the speciation . Alkaline earth metal chelation plays a significant role in the speciation of EDTA and DTPA when there is a noticeable molar excess of complexing agents compared with transition metals. J Environ Qual, 2001 Mar-Apr, 30(2), 291 - 302 Oxygen-deficient waters along the Japanese coast and their effects upon the estuarine ecosystem; Suzuki T; Development of hypoxia in Japan has been confirmed in the inner part of almost every major bay of Japan on the Pacific Coast from Tokyo southward . This paper presents multiple aspects (present condition, hydraulic mechanism, effect upon fisheries, historical progress and nutrient budget between sediment and water) using Mikawa Bay, where Japan's most serious hypoxia occurs, as an example . Although hypoxia basically results from the increase of nutrient load input from domestic and livestock sources, the intense reclamation of shallows (including tidal flats) and the large reduction in river flow due to farmland irrigation drastically accelerated dissolved oxygen deficiency . Oxygen-deficient waters in Mikawa Bay are large enough to strip the water purification capacity of the remaining shallows . Unfortunately, the shallows have turned from a purifier to a source of nutrient load . These conditions are more or less common in all bays where the dissolved oxygen-deficient waters have been reported . To break this cycle, dissolved oxygen deficiency must be contained to the extent that the purification capacity of the shallows can be restored to an efficient level . For this purpose, the first thing to do is to restore tidal flats over an extensive area and to recover sufficient water flow, which may be a more urgent imperative than reducing the nutrient load input. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 2001 Mar, 203(3), 215 - 9 Distribution of free-living amoebae (FLA) during preparation and supply of drinking water; Hoffmann R et al.; Free-living amoebae (FLA) are widely distributed in aquatic environments with increasing importance in hygienic, medical and ecological relationship to man . Only few data are available about abundances of these protozoa in the treatment of drinking water and standards in the management of water quality are not suitable for detection of FLA . Prevalence of FLA were investigated within six selected German drinking water treatment plants in the course of the purification-process of surface water and in a subsequent drinking water supply . The data give a short survey about the prevalence and reduction of FLA in processing and supply of drinking water. Water Res, 2001 Apr, 35(5), 1325 - 33 The application of powdered activated carbon for MIB and geosmin removal: predicting PAC doses in four raw waters; Cook D et al.; Blooms of blue-green algae in reservoirs often produce the musty-earthy taste and odour algal metabolites 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) and geosmin . MIB and geosmin are not removed by conventional water treatment and their presence in the distribution system, even at low ng L-1 levels, can result in consumer complaints . Powdered activated carbon (PAC) can effectively remove MIB and geosmin when the correct dose is applied . The homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) was used to predict PAC doses required to reduce MIB and geosmin concentrations to below 10 ng L-1 at four water treatment plants in Adelaide, South Australia . In jar tests, undertaken under treatment plant conditions, the predicted doses were found to produce water of the desired quality in three of the four waters . The poor predictions found in the fourth water, which had a considerably higher turbidity, were attributed to the incorporation of PAC in a larger, denser floc, leading to a reduced effective contact time of the adsorbent . It was found that higher doses of PAC were required for both compounds to produce acceptable quality water when turbidities rose above 26 NTU. Water Res, 2001 Apr, 35(5), 1245 - 55 Photocatalytic degradation of the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin, using titanium dioxide and UV irradiation; Senogles PJ et al.; Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii produces the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin, which is commonly found in SouthEast Queensland water reservoirs, and has been responsible for the closure of these reservoirs as a source of drinking water in recent times . Thus, alternative more effective treatment methods need to be investigated for the removal of toxins such as cylindrospermopsin . This study examined the effectiveness of two brands of titanium dioxide under UV photolysis for the degradation of cylindrospermopsin . Results indicate that titanium dioxide is an efficient photocatalyst for cylindrospermopsin degradation . The titanium dioxide (TiO2), brand Degussa P-25 was found to be more efficient than the alternate brand Hombikat UV-100 . There was an influence from solution pH (4, 7, and 9) with both brands of titanium dioxide, with high pH resulting in the best degradation rate . Importantly, there was no adsorption of cylindrospermopsin to titanium dioxide particles as seen with other cyanotoxins, which would adversely influence the degradation rate . Degradation rates were not influenced by temperature (19-34 degrees C) when P-25 was the source of TiO2, some temperature influence was observed with UV-100 . Dissolved organic carbon concentration will reduce the efficiency of titanium dioxide for cylindrospermopsin degradation, however the presence of other inorganic matter in natural waters greatly assists the photocatalytic process . With minimal potentially toxic by-product formation expected with this treatment, and the effective degradation of cylindrospermopsin, titanium dioxide UV photolysis is a promising speculative alternative water treatment method. J Med Entomol, 2001 Jan, 38(1), 51 - 4 L-lactic acid as a mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) repellent on human and mouse skin; Shirai Y et al.; The attraction of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) to hands and forearms of human subjects treated with several concentrations of L-LA solution were studied in a test chamber containing proboscis-amputated mosquitoes . Fewer mosquitoes alighted on L-LA treated human skin than on water-treated control skin . Similar results were found using normal mosquitoes following L-LA and water treatment of mouse skin . The relative repellent effects of L-LA varied with concentration . The minimum repellent concentration was lower than previously reported for human skin . The number of alightments decreased at increasing concentrations of L-LA, demonstrating the absolute repellency of L-LA . Unlike previous reports suggesting that L-LA attracted mosquitoes, our studies using human and mouse skin showed that L-LA exhibited both relative and absolute repellency. Br J Ophthalmol, 2001 Apr, 85(4), 437 - 43 The specific architecture of the anterior stroma accounts for maintenance of corneal curvature; Muller LJ et al.; AIM: To analyse the human corneal stroma in extreme hydration to discover if its structure is responsible for corneal stability . METHODS: Corneas in several hydration states were used: postmortem control corneas (PM; n=3), corneas left for 1 day in phosphate buffered saline (PBS; n=4), and corneas left for 1 day (n=4), 2 days (n=4), 3 days (n=2), and 4 days (n=4) in deionised water . All corneas were fixed under standardised conditions and processed for light and electron microscopy . In addition, two fresh corneas from the operating theatre were studied which were processed 6 months after storage in sodium cacodylate buffer . RESULTS: After 1 day in deionised water maximal stromal swelling was reached which did not change up to 4 days . The stroma of deionised water corneas (1400 microm) was much thicker than that of PBS corneas (650 microm) and PM corneas (450 microm) . Deionised water treatment led to disappearance of all keratocytes leaving only remnants of nuclei and large interlamellar spaces . In these specimens the distance between the collagen fibres had increased significantly, but the diameter of the collagen fibres did not seem to be affected . A remarkable observation was that the most anterior part of the stroma (100-120 microm) in all deionised water specimens and those stored for 6 months in buffer was not swollen, indicating that the tightly interwoven anterior lamellae are resistant to extreme non-physiological hydration states . CONCLUSIONS: The rigidity of the most anterior part of the corneal stroma in extreme hydration states points to an important role in maintenance of corneal curvature . Since a large part of this rigid anterior part of the stroma is either removed (PRK) or intersected (LASIK), it is possible that in the long run patients who underwent refractive surgery may be confronted with optical problems. Poult Sci, 2001 Mar, 80(3), 358 - 69 Plasma levels of arginine, ornithine, and urea and growth performance of broilers fed supplemental L-arginine during cool temperature exposure; Ruiz-Feria CA et al.; Two experiments (Experiment 1 and 2) were conducted to evaluate growth performance, ascites mortality, and concentrations of plasma Arg, urea, and ornithine in male broilers raised in floor pens (2 x 4 factorial experiment, six pens for treatment) and exposed to cool temperatures averaging 16 C after 21 d of age . Broilers were fed low- or high-CP diets in both Experiments . In Experiment 1, Arg treatments consisted of control (no supplemental Arg); 0.15 or 0.3% supplemental Arg in the diet (low- and medium-Arg feed, respectively); and 0.3% supplemental Arg in the drinking water (Arg-water) . Arginine levels were increased in Experiment 2 and consisted of the following: control (no supplemental Arg); 0.3 or 0.85% supplemental Arg in the diet (medium- and high-Arg feed, respectively); and 0.6% supplemental Arg in the drinking water (Arg-water) . The water treatment followed a 3-d cyclic regimen, with supplemental Arg being provided for 24 h, followed by tap water for 48 h . When the broilers reached 37 d of age and all groups had consumed tap water for the previous 48 h, blood samples were collected from one bird per pen (Time 0, 0700 h); then supplemental Arg was provided in the Arg-water group, and additional blood samples were collected from the control and Arg-water groups at 3, 6, 12, and 36 h after Time 0 . Plasma amino acids were analyzed using HPLC . Birds fed the high-CP diet were heavier at 49 d than birds fed the low-CP diet in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2 . No differences were found in feed conversion or ascites mortality due to CP or Arg treatments in either experiment . In both experiments, plasma Arg was similar for all groups at Time 0, but increased in the Arg-water group at 3, 6, and 12 h after Arg was provided in the water . Within 12 h after returning to tap water, plasma Arg levels of the Arg-water group did not differ from the control group . Plasma urea and ornithine were parallel to plasma Arg concentrations, and the high-CP diets resulted in higher plasma levels of urea and ornithine compared with low-CP diets . These results indicate that kidney arginase was readily activated by Arg provided in the water, resulting in an immediate increase in plasma urea and ornithine . Plasma Arg was increased significantly, but no effects were observed in ascites mortality. J Colloid Interface Sci, 2001 Apr 1, 236(1), 60 - 66 Dispersion Destabilization in Magnetic Water Treatment; Lipus LC et al.; The destabilization of fine nonmagnetic particles as one of the possible mechanisms for magnetic water treatment (MWT), an alternative method for scale control in industrial water processing and amelioration of dispersion separations, is discussed . Numerical results (based on an electrical double-layer theory) for the theoretical model of surface neutralization due to ion shifts from the bulk of the solution toward the particle surfaces, are presented to show the theoretical possibility of accelerated coagulation of scale-forming particles during and after MWT . J Environ Monit, 2001 Feb, 3(1), 81 - 5 Speciation of arsenic using solid phase extraction cartridges; Yalcin S et al.; Various solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges were investigated for speciation of arsenite {As(III)}, arsenate {As(v)}, monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) . Cartridges containing different types of sorbent materials were tested for arsenic retention and elution characteristics . Alumina cartridges were found to completely retain all the four target arsenic species, and are suitable for removal and preconcentration purposes . For speciation analysis, different arsenic species were separated on the basis of their selective retention on and elution from specific cartridges . DMA was retained on a resin-based strong cation exchange cartridge and eluted with 1.0 M HCl . MMA and As(v) were both retained on a silica-based strong anion exchange cartridge and sequentially eluted with 60 mM acetic acid (for MMA) and 1.0 M HCl {for As(v)} . As(III) was not retained on either cartridge and remained in solution . Arsenic species in solution and those eluted from the cartridges were subsequently quantified by using flow injection with hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry (FI-HGAFS) and hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (FI-HGAAS) . A detection limit of 0.05 microg L(-1) arsenic in water sample was achieved using HGAFS . An application of the method was demonstrated at a drinking water treatment facility . As(III) and As(v) species were determined in water at various stages of treatment . The method is suitable for routine determination of trace levels of arsenic in drinking water to comply with more stringent environmental regulations. J Nutr, 2001 Mar, 131(3s), 1080S - 4S Pharmacologic activities of aged garlic extract in comparison with other garlic preparations; Kasuga S et al.; We investigated the pharmacologic activities of four garlic preparations, raw garlic juice (RGJ), heated garlic juice (HGJ), dehydrated garlic powder (DGP) and aged garlic extract (AGE) . The study used three animal models, i.e., testicular hypogonadism (hypospermatogensis and impotence) induced by warm water treatment, intoxication of acetaldehyde and growth of inoculated tumor cells . RGJ was found to be effective only in recovery of testicular function . The efficacy of HGJ was observed in three models; however, it did not improve impotence . DGP was effective in recovery of spermatogenesis and stimulated acetaldehyde detoxification . Significant beneficial effects of AGE were found in all three models . Although all four garlic preparations significantly enhanced natural killer (NK) and killer cell activities of the spleen cells of tumor-bearing mice, only AGE and HGJ inhibited the growth of inoculated tumor cells . These results suggest that different types of garlic preparations have different pharmacologic properties, and among the four garlic preparations studied, AGE could be the most useful garlic preparation. Water Res, 2001 Mar, 35(4), 1106 - 10 Assimilable organic carbon in molecular weight fractions of natural organic matter; Hem LJ et al.; Assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in natural organic matter (NOM) has been measured in three Norwegian waters . The AOC measurement has been done on unfiltered and membrane-filtered (molecular weight (MW) cut-off of 1000 and 10,000) samples . While the colour in the waters is mainly related to the NOM with MW > 10,000, the AOC was mainly related to the NOM with MW < 1000 . The fraction of the NOM with MW < 1000 corresponds to 16-38% of the total organic carbon (TOC), and 4-9% of the colour . This shows that a water treatment process removing the colour and a large part of the TOC in the water will not necessarily result in a reduction in the biofilm formation potential. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2001 Mar, 67(3), 1225 - 31 Factors influencing numbers of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, and other Mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems; Falkinham JO 3rd et al.; Eight water distribution systems were sampled over an 18-month period (528 water and 55 biofilm samples) to measure the frequency of recovery and number of mycobacteria, particularly Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare, in raw source waters before and after treatment and within the distribution system . The systems were chosen to assess the influence of source water, treatment, and assimilable organic carbon levels on mycobacterial numbers . Overall, mycobacterial recovery from the systems was low (15% of samples) . Numbers of mycobacteria ranged from 10 to 700,000 CFU liter(-1) . The number of M . avium in raw waters was correlated with turbidity . Water treatment substantially reduced the number of mycobacteria in raw waters by 2 to 4 log units . Mycobacterial numbers were substantially higher in the distribution system samples (average, 25,000-fold) than in those collected immediately downstream from the treatment facilities, indicating that mycobacteria grow in the distribution system . The increase in mycobacterial numbers was correlated with assimilable organic carbon and biodegradable organic carbon levels (r(2) = 0.65, P = 0.03) . Although M . intracellulare was seldom recovered from water samples, it was frequently recovered (six of eight systems) in high numbers from biofilms (average, 600 CFU/cm(2)) . Evidently, the ecological niches of M . avium and M . intracellulare are distinct. Water Res, 2001 Feb, 35(2), 448 - 54 Hydrolysis of triphosphate from detergents in a rural waste water system; Halliwell DJ et al.; The concentrations of detergent phosphates in raw sewage entering a small, predominantly domestic waste water treatment facility were determined using an ion chromatographic-flow injection analysis technique . Hourly loads of detergent phosphates were measured between 0600 and 2300 hrs (the major flow period in the plant) on days of both low and high phosphorus loads . The calculated loads of detergent phosphorus entering the plant on low and high load days were 260 g P/day and 350 g P/day, respectively . The half-life of detergent phosphates (triphosphate) in waste waters was measured to be 7.3 hours at 15 degrees C and 3.0 h at 20 degrees C . The major factor contributing to triphosphate degradation in waste water was shown to be biological in nature, with the most likely mechanism being enzymatic hydrolysis. Water Res, 2001 Feb, 35(2), 419 - 24 Evaluation of two concentration methods for detecting Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water; Hsu BM et al.; The cartridge filtration method and membrane filtration method based on the fluorescent antibody procedure were evaluated for their recovery efficiencies and detection limits of Giardia and Cryptosporidium . We assessed the performances of the two concentration methods for water samples collected from Taiwan water treatment plants . The membrane filtration method was characterized by higher recovery rate and detection limit comparing with the cartridge filtration method . The occurrences of both parasites, and the relationships of parasite concentrations with indicator microorganisms show inconsistency between the two methods . It was discovered that water turbidity reduced the recovery efficiencies, and raised the detection limits for both parasites regardless of the method used. Water Res, 2001 Mar, 35(3), 675 - 82 Bacterial dynamics in the drinking water distribution system of Brussels; Niquette P et al.; Water samples and pipe coupons were collected from the Brussel's drinking water distribution system (DS) . A treated surface water and various groundwaters feed this DS . Parameters related to bacterial regrowth have been measured on these samples: temperature, concentrations of free residual chlorine, concentration of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC), abundance of suspended bacteria, densities of fixed bacteria and levels of bacterial activity . Results showed that groundwaters were less susceptible to favor bacterial regrowth in the DS pipes . Treated surface water and mixed waters had the highest potential of bacterial regrowth in the DS dead ends . Results also showed that the potential regrowth induced by the distribution of a treated surface water could be reduced if: (1) the BDOC levels were below 0.25 mg C/l at the outlet of the surface water treatment plant; (2) a significant free chlorine residual was present within the whole DS . Second-stage biological filtration using granular activated carbon is now under construction at the surface water treatment plant feeding a part of this DS . This treatment implementation should reduce BDOC levels and chlorine demand of the treated surface water and will further reduce the slight regrowth phenomena observed in this DS. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 2000, 108, 93 - 123 Safe drinking water production in rural areas: a comparison between developed and less developed countries; Cotruvo JA et al.; At the fundamental level, there are remarkable parallels between developed and less developed countries in problems of providing safe drinking water in rural areas, but of course, they differ greatly in degree and in the opportunities for resolution . Small water supplies frequently encounter difficulty accessing sufficient quantities of drinking water for all domestic uses . If the water must be treated for safety reasons, then treatment facilities and trained operating personnel and finances are always in short supply . Ideally, each solution should be sustainable within its own cultural, political and economic context, and preferably with local personnel and financial resources . Otherwise, the water supply will be continuously dependent on outside resources and thus will not be able to control its destiny, and its future will be questionable . The history of success in this regard has been inconsistent, particularly in less developed but also in some developed countries . The traditional and ideal solution in developing countries has been central water treatment and a piped distribution network, however, results have had a mixed history primarily due to high initial costs and operation and maintenance, inadequate access to training, management and finance sufficient to support a fairly complex system for the long term . These complete systems are also slow to be implemented so waterborne disease continues in the interim . Thus, non-traditional, creative, cost-effective practical solutions that can be more rapidly implemented are needed . Some of these options could involve: small package central treatment coupled with non piped distribution, e.g . community supplied bottled water; decentralized treatment for the home using basic filtration and/or disinfection; higher levels of technology to deal with chemical contaminants e.g . natural fluoride or arsenic . These technological options coupled with training, technical support and other essential elements like community commitment provide opportunities that should be explored both for rural small communities and in rapidly growing periurban areas in developing countries. Waste Manag, 2001, 21(2), 197 - 203 Treatment of acid lignite mine flooding water by means of microbial sulfate reduction; Glombitza F; During and after mining activities acidic waters containing high amounts of heavy metals and sulfate often occur . In addition to precipitation processes, water purification is also possible with the help of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) . A mixed culture of SRB was adapted to methanol as a cheap carbon source . In order to receive high sulfate-reduction rates immobilization on porous materials proved to be advantageous . Continuous laboratory experiments based on immobilized SRB were carried out with original water from a lignite mining site reaching sulfate-reducing rates up to 132 mg SO4(2-)/(1 h) . Based on these results a process for the treatment of such waters was designed . Heavy metals are removed by recycling sulfide containing effluent, excess sulfide can be oxidized to elemental sulfur by addition of hydrogen peroxide . The plant with a 3.9 m3 bioreactor with immobilized SRB was constructed at the mine site . This pilot plant was operated successfully for some months . The removal of heavy metals was close to 100%, the pH of the acidic water increased from 3.0 to 6.9 . The sulfate-reducing rate again reached 134 mg SO4(2-)/(1 h) . The production of sulfur from the excess sulfide is possible. J Environ Qual, 2001 Jan-Feb, 30(1), 200 - 9 Artificial recharge of humic ground water; Alborzfar M et al.; The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of soil in removing natural organic matter from humic ground waters using artificial recharge . The study site, in western Denmark, was a 10,000 ml football field of which 2,000 m2 served as an infiltration field . The impact of the artificial recharge was studied by monitoring the water level and the quality of the underlying shallow aquifer . The humic ground water contained mainly humic adds with an organic carbon (OC) concentration of 100 to 200 mg C L(-1) . A total of 5,000 mS of humic ground water were sprinkled onto the infiltration field at an average rate of 4.25 mm h(-1) . This resulted in a rise in the water table of the shallow aquifer . The organic matter concentration of the water in the shallow aquifer, however, remained below 2.7 mg C L(-1) . The organic matter concentration of the pore water in the unsaturated zone was measured at the end of the experiment . The organic matter concentration of the pore water decreased from 105 mg C L(-1) at 0.5 m to 20 mg C L(-1) at 2.5 m under the infiltration field indicating that the soil removed the organic matter from the humic ground water . From these results we conclude that artificial recharge is a possible method for humic ground water treatment. Scand J Gastroenterol, 2000 Dec, 35(12), 1308 - 13 Chronic inhibition of nitric oxide ameliorates splanchnic hyposensitivity to glypressin in a hemorrhage-transfused rat model of portal hypertension; Huang HC et al.; BACKGROUND: Vasopressin given during hemorrhage is less effective than when given during a stable state in experimental portal hypertension or patients with cirrhosis (the so-called hyposensitivity phenomenon) . This study investigated whether chronic inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis by NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), a non-selective NO synthase inhibitor, could potentiate the portal-hypotensive effect of glypressin (a long-acting vasopressin analogue) in portal-hypertensive rats during acute bleeding status . METHODS: Portal hypertension was induced by partial portal vein ligation (PVL) . Rats were divided to receive either L-NAME (approximately 25 mg/kg/day in tap water) or placebo (tap water) treatment orally from 2 days prior to until 14 days after the operation . At the end of treatment, L-NAME-and placebo-treated PVL rats were subdivided into without-bleeding and with-bleeding groups to assess the effects of glypressin (0.07 mg/kg) on systemic and portal hemodynamics . In rats with a hypotensive hemorrhage, 4.5 ml of blood was withdrawn and 50% of the withdrawn blood was reinfused before the administration of glypressin . RESULTS: As compared with placebo-treated rats, chronic treatment with L-NAME in PVL rats significantly increased mean arterial pressure (P < 0.001) without modulating portal pressure (P > 0.05) . In placebo-treated PVL rats, glypressin resulted in a less decrease in portal pressure in rats with bleeding than in those without bleeding (P < 0.05) . For PVL rats with bleeding, the portal-hypotensive effect of glypressin was significantly potentiated after chronic L-NAME treatment (P < 0.05) . CONCLUSIONS: Chronic inhibition of NO alleviates the splanchnic hyposensitivity to glypressin observed in bleeding PVL rats, suggesting the pathophysiological role of nitric oxide in mediating this splanchnic hyposensitivity. J Travel Med, 2001 Jan-Feb, 8(1), 12 - 8 Bacterial removal from inexpensive portable water treatment systems for travelers; Schlosser O et al.; BACKGROUND: There are many personal portable water treatment systems for travelers on the market, including chemical agents, iodine resin purifiers and filters . However, information on the real efficacy of these systems in the field is often lacking . We have therefore estimated the capabilities of several inexpensive personal portable water treatment systems for travelers to remove bacteria in various situations of water quality, using stressed indigenous strains of bacteria . METHODS: Four chemical agents (Drinkwell chlorine, Hydroclonazone, Aquatabs, 2% iodine in ethanol), two iodine resin purifiers (the straw PentaPure Outdoor M1-E, the PentaPure Traveler purifying and filtration system) and four filters (the flexible bottle Pres2Pure, the hand-pump filters Mini Ceramic, First Need Deluxe and WalkAbout) were evaluated in triplicate using both turbid and clear water at 25 degrees C . Bacteria were counted by conventional culturing techniques, colorimetric and fluorescent assays of coliforms and Escherichia coli enzyme activities (Colilert)/Quantitray method), and viable but not culturable bacteria were assessed quantitatively by 5-cyano-2,3-dilotyl-tetrazolium staining . RESULTS: The best systems were the three hand-pump filters, Mini Ceramic, First Need Deluxe, and WalkAbout . All had a submicron filtration element that completely removed 3 log (99.9%) or more of viable bacteria, and no coliforms or E . coli were detected in the effluent . The PentaPure Traveler removed more than 99.3% of the viable bacteria . The only chemical agents that gave a bacterial inactivation of over 2 log in clear water were the Drinkwell chlorine, the Aquatabs, and the 2% iodine in ethanol . The three other devices, Hydroclonazone, Outdoor M1-E, and Pres2Pure, performed poorly, as coliforms and E . coli were detected in the treated water by the Colilert method . The chemical agents and the iodine resin straw performed poorly on raw river water; coliforms and E . coli were detected in the treated water . CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the differences between the systems tested . The effectiveness of other devices on the market should also be tested, so as to help travelers and hikers select the most appropriate portable water treatment system. Appl Anim Behav Sci, 2001 Feb 16, 71(1), 29 - 42 Effects of an oral dose of acetyl salicylate at tail docking on the behaviour of lambs aged three to six weeks; Pollard JC et al.; To investigate a practical method of providing analgesia for docking of lambs' tails, the effectiveness of an oral dose of aspirin (acetyl salicylate) in reducing discomfort behaviour immediately following application of elastrator rings, was evaluated . The study involved a pilot trial and an experiment, both using Romney crossbred lambs aged 3-6 weeks accompanied by their mothers in a group pen, with behaviour recorded on videotape . In the pilot trial, lambs were manually restrained, an elastrator ring was applied, then lambs were given either an oral dose (26mg/kg) of aspirin dissolved in water (Treatment RA, n=5 lambs) or an oral dose of water (Treatment R, n=4 lambs), and released . RA lambs changed posture between sternal recumbency and standing less frequently than R lambs, significantly so from 10 to 20min post-treatment (11 times for RA, compared with 28% (S.E.D . 6.6%) for R lambs) . In the experiment, 56 lambs were given one of two docking treatments (either RA: application of an elastrator ring plus the same aspirin treatment as in the pilot trial, or R: application of the ring plus water), or one of two control treatments (CA: restraint plus aspirin; or C: restraint plus water) . During the hour after treatment, docking was associated with differences in over three quarters of 52 postures and activities used to describe behaviour (P<0.05), and marked changes over time in the postures/activities affected were observed . Differences were evident within 5min and some were still apparent at 60min post-treatment . When postures and activities were designated as 'normal' or 'abnormal' (typical of docked lambs), over the total hours of observation the mean frequency of abnormal postures was 3.5% for control lambs and 22.6% (S.E.D . 1.64%) for docked lambs, and the mean frequency of abnormal activities was 5.2% for control lambs and 19.3% (S.E.D . 1.40%) for docked lambs . Provision of aspirin to docked lambs was associated with similar levels to those seen in control lambs for two activities but was also associated with increased levels of some activities/postures (P<0.05) . These effects were minor compared with the effects of docking and there was no indication of effective analgesia . Thus, when elastrator tail docking rings were applied, behavioural effects indicative of pain were observed immediately and did not subside fully within 1h . Despite indications in the pilot trial of an analgesic effect of aspirin, further experimentation did not substantiate this effect. Environ Res, 2001 Feb, 85(2), 77 - 82 Estimation of potential lifetime cancer risks for trihalomethanes from consuming chlorinated drinking water in Taiwan; Hsu CH et al.; Data on concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in raw and chlorinated water collected from three water treatment plants in Taiwan and estimates of the lifetime cancer risk for THMs from drinking water, using age-adjusted factors and volatilization terms, are presented . Data on THM levels in drinking water were obtained from the annual reports of the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) of Taiwan . The methodology for estimation of lifetime cancer risks was taken from the USEPA . Chloroform was the major species of THMs, especially in the water plant of south Taiwan . Chloroform contributed the majority of the lifetime cancer risks (range: 87.5-92.5%) of total risks from the three water supply areas . All lifetime cancer risks for CHCl(3), CHBrCl(2), CHBr2Cl, and CHBr3 from consuming tap water in the three water supply areas were higher than 10(-6) . The sum of lifetime cancer risks for CHCl(3), CHBrCl(3), CHBr2Cl, and CHBr3 was highest (total risk for total THMs<1.94x10(-4)) for tap water from south Taiwan . Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2001 Jan, 64(1), 5 - 10 Thromboxane-B2, prostaglandin-E2 and hypertension in the rat 2-kidney 1-clip model: a possible mechanism of the garlic induced hypotension; Al-Qattan KK et al.; Serum collected from unilaterally clipped and unclipped rats before and after treatment with water, garlic or cilazapril and subsequent to measuring blood pressure was assayed for thromboxane-B2 and prostaglandin-E2 . The unclipped rats' thromboxane-B2 and prostaglandin-E2 levels were about 23 ng/ml and 2 ng/ml, respectively, and blood pressure was 126+/-3 mmHg . These values were not affected by either water or garlic administration . The clipped rats' thromboxane-B2 and prostaglandin-E2 concentrations were close to 34 ng/ml and 4 ng/ml, respectively, and declined only in response to garlic (by 15 ng/ml and 3 ng/ml) and cilazapril (by 12 ng/ml and 1.5 ng/ml) . The blood pressure of these rats was 196+/-7 mmHg and again was reduced only by garlic to 169+/-14 mmHg and cilazapril to 137+/-5 mmHg . The no-treatment and water-treatment readings were significantly higher in the clipped rats . The data suggest that prostanoid system activity in the 2-kidney 1-clip rat is enhanced and mostly toward maintaining the hypertension . Furthermore, the blood pressure lowering effects of garlic and cilazapril might have been induced partially by a greater reduction in the synthesis of vasoconstrictor prostanoids . Bioresour Technol, 2001 Jan, 76(2), 131 - 5 Nutrient removal from polluted river water by using constructed wetlands; Jing SR et al.; The Erh-Ren River is one of the most polluted rivers in Taiwan . Although its flow rate is relatively low, the rate is still beyond the capacity of any traditional water treatment facility . A pilot-scale constructed wetland (CW) is the attempt used to purify the highly polluted river water and to collect data for the construction and operation of a full-scale system in the future . This article reports the results from this initial stage of our research work . During the study, the most efficient nutrient removal occurred between April and October . The monthly average removal rates of chemical oxygen demand (COD) ranged from 13-51% of ammonia-N (AN) from 78-100%, and of orthophosphate (OP) from 52-85% . After November, input COD levels increased, and the monthly average removal rates of ammonia-N dropped to 16% and of orthophosphate to 13% . The dramatic changes in removal efficiency suggest that the macrophytes in the CW had a direct influence on the water treatment and that the change of seasons and the quality of the river water inhibited the growth of the macrophytes. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2000 Nov, 47(3), 292 - 7 Comparative evaluation of the potential noxiousness in domestic sludge used in agriculture and in commercial fertilizers; Delmas F et al.; The noxiousness of actual sludge collected in eight water treatment plants around the city of Toulouse, France, was evaluated using a biological test based on the growth rate of cultured human cells . Results were compared with those obtained from 18 fertilizers and culture supports that are commercially available in gardening shops . Surprisingly, it was found that sludge extracts, at low concentrations (below 5 g of dry material/liter), were improving the cell growth rate, which suggests the presence of useful oligoelements . At higher concentrations, a noxious effect, expressed as inhibition of cell growth, was observed . However, this negative effect was of the same order of magnitude as that obtained, under the same experimental conditions, with commercial garden fertilizers which are available and used without any restriction . It is concluded that discarding the sludge, after submission to the biological test, in controlled amount as an agricultural fertilizer should not be hazardous to the environment. Semin Dial, 2000 Nov-Dec, 13(6), 378 - 80 Ultrapure dialysate: a desirable and achievable goal for routine hemodialysis; Ward RA; United States standards for the microbiologic quality of dialysate are not very stringent and have remained unchanged for more than 20 years, despite significant changes in the patient population and in the technology of hemodialysis . Numerous studies have demonstrated that bacterial products can cross dialysis membranes and stimulate an inflammatory response in the patient . Inflammation has been implicated in several complications associated with long-term hemodialysis therapy, and the use of ultrapure dialysate has been shown to reduce the incidence of one of these complications, beta2-microglobulin amyloidosis . Since technological innovations in water treatment and improvements in dialysis machine design allow the routine production of ultrapure dialysate, its use should now become standard. Semin Dial, 2000 Nov-Dec, 13(6), 372 - 7 Technical advances in hemodialysis therapy; Parker TF 3rd; Other than pharmaceutical advancements, the improvements in hemodialysis have largely been due to technical changes . This article summarizes the various technical areas that are noteworthy: hemodialysis membranes; dialysate buffer, electrolyte concentration, and temperature; prescription monitoring; reprocessing; volume-ultrafiltration control; information system interface; arteriovenous access monitoring; water treatment; and continuous and nocturnal dialysis . Within each category, subjective and objective conclusions are drawn as to whether the technical advancements have translated to improved clinical outcomes . In addition, an hypothesis is proposed that due to a confluence of ownership of research and development, manufacturing of equipment, and dialysis facilities conflicts may arise which could slow future technical developments. J Chromatogr A, 2000 Nov 3, 897(1-2), 307 - 15 Simultaneous determination of cyanogen chloride and cyanogen bromide in treated water at sub-microg/L levels by a new solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatographic-electron-capture detection method; Cancho B et al.; A headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) procedure has been developed and applied for the determination of cyanogen halides in treated water samples at microg/L concentrations . Several SPME coatings were tested, the divinylbenzene-Carboxen-polydimethylsiloxane fiber being the most appropriate coating . GC-electron-capture detection was used for separation and quantitation . Experimental parameters such as sample volume, addition of a salt, extraction time and desorption conditions were studied . The optimized method has an acceptable linearity, good precision, with RSD values <10% for both compounds, and it is sufficiently sensitive to detect ng/L levels . HS-SPME was compared with liquid-liquid microextraction (US Environmental Protection Agency Method 551.1) for the analysis of spiked ultrapure and granular activated carbon filtered water samples . There was good agreement between the results from both methods . Finally, the optimized procedure was applied to determine both compounds at the Barcelona water treatment plant (N.E . Spain) . Cyanogen chloride in treated water was <1.0 microg/L and cyanogen bromide ranged from 3.2 to 6.4 microg/L. Artif Organs, 2000 Nov, 24(11), 841 - 4 Trace Metals' abnormalities in hemodialysis patients: relationship with medications; Lee SH et al.; A multicenter collaborative study was performed to investigate the prevalence of abnormal blood contents of 6 trace metals, copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg), in hemodialysis (HD) patients and to analyze their relationship with the medications, such as CaCO3, Ca acetate, Al containing phosphate-binding agents, 1,25-dihydroxy vitD3, 1-hydroxy vitD3, and erythropoietin (EPO), as well as hematocrit level, by chi-square statistics . From 6 medical centers in Taiwan, we included 456 patients in maintenance HD for more than 4 months for this study, and they had continued the previously mentioned medications for at least 3 months . Blood samples were collected before initiating HD, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used to measure plasma levels of Cu, Zn, and Al as well as whole blood levels of Pb, Cd, and Hg . Three hundred seventy-five (78%) of the HD patients had low plasma Zn levels, that is, <800 microg/L, and the mean (+/-SD) concentration was 705.8 (+/-128.23) microg/L in all subjects . One hundred forty-one (31%) of the HD patients had high plasma Al, that is, >50 microg/L, and the mean (+/-SD) was 44.30 (+/-28.28) microg/L in all subjects . Three hundred thirty-three (73%) of the dialysis patients had high Cd levels, that is, >2.5 microg/L, and the mean (+/-SD) was 3.32 (+/-1.49) microg/L in all subjects . The majority of HD patients had normal blood levels of Cu, PB, and Hg . Only 21 (4 . 6%), 5 (1.1%), and 3 (0.06%) patients had elevated blood levels of Cu, Pb, and Hg, respectively . Their mean (+/-SD) blood concentration of Cu, Pb, and Hg were 1,049.78 (+/-233.25) microg/L, 7.45 (+/-3.95) microg/dL, and 3.17 (+/-25.56) microg/L, respectively . Three patients had elevated plasma Hg concentrations, that is, 546, 12.6, and 24.0 microg/L, respectively . In the 152 normal healthy age and sex matched control group, the blood levels of Al, Cd, and Pb were all significantly lower than the HD patients . However, the levels of Cu and Zn were higher in the control group . The Hg level was not significantly different in both groups . There was no statistical difference between patients with normal and abnormal blood levels of trace metals in various medications except Al containing phosphate binder . The Al containing phosphate binder users had significantly higher plasma Al levels (54.71 +/- 26.70 versus 41.15 +/- 28.03 microg/L, p < 0.001) and hematocrit levels (29.61 +/- 4.61 versus 27 . 81 +/- 3.91, p < 0.0005) . There was no statistical correlation between erythropoietin (EPO) dose and hematocrit level in these patients . In conclusion, the blood level of trace metals of these HD patients except Al was not related to their medications . However, caution must be exercised in interpreting this result as dose and duration of medication; efficiency of HD and water treatment may play an important role . Otherwise, environmental factors, diet, and the aging process may contribute to the trace metal burden in uremia . Thus, Zn and Cu are abundant in seafood, and Cd is abundant in contaminated plants such as rice. Am J Bot, 2000 Dec, 87(12), 1807 - 1814 Seedbed and moisture availability determine safe sites for early Thuja occidentalis (Cupressaceae) regeneration; Cornett MW et al.; Regeneration of many late-successional tree species depends on specialized safe sites . The primary objective was to investigate the roles of seedbed and moisture retention as dimensions of safe sites for the early regeneration of drought-sensitive northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) . We hypothesized that rates of germination, survival, and growth of T . occidentalis are unlikely to differ among seedbed types under conditions of abundant water, but that differences are likely to emerge as water becomes more limited . In a 67-d greenhouse experiment, cedar seeds were sown on logs, leaf litter, and soil of cedar and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) canopy origin . Seedbeds were subjected to three water treatments . Among the water treatments, highest germination rates occurred within the high water treatment, although germination on cedar litter was comparable to that of the low water treatment . Higher germination and survival rates occurred on decayed logs than other natural seedbeds for medium (P: = 0.001) and low (P: < 0.0001) water treatments . Germination on birch logs occurred at higher rates than on cedar logs within the low water treatment (P: = 0.04) . Seedling growth for the medium water treatment was lower on leaf litter than any other type of seedbed (P: < 0.01) . Results generally demonstrated that the interplay between seedbed and moisture retention is a component of safe sites for T . occidentalis regeneration. J Mass Spectrom, 2000 Oct, 35(10), 1197 - 206 Analysis of polar hydrophilic aromatic sulfonates in waste water treatment plants by CE/MS and LC/MS Loos R, Riu J, Alonso MC, Barcelo D. The present work describes the development and optimization of a capillary (zone) electrophoresis/mass spectrometric (CE/MS) analysis method for polar hydrophilic aromatic sulfonates (ASs) . The compounds were detected by negative ion electrospray ionization (NIESI) and selected ion monitoring (SIM) . In comparison with CE/UV, for CE/MS a lower-concentration volatile ammonium acetate buffer (5 mM) without organic modifier and a higher separation voltage were better suited for separation . Sensitivity of CE/MS was slightly better than for CF/UV, with the limit of detection (LOD) ranging between 0.1 and 0.4 mg l(-1) . For verification of the CE/MS results, ASs were also analysed by ion-pair liquid chromatography/diode array UV detection coupled in series with electrospray mass spectrometry (IPC/DAD/ESI-MS) . Real water samples of different waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) in Catalonia (NE Spain) were extracted by solid-phase extraction (SPE) with LiChrolut EN and analysed with CE/MS and LC/MS . ASs were found in influent and effluent water samples of the WWTPs in the microg l(-1) concentration range . LC/MS offered a higher separation efficiency and sensitivity than CE/MS . Therefore with LC/MS more compounds could be identified in the WWTPs . The persistency of the ASs was distinct: some compounds were well degraded during the water treatment process, while others were quite persistent. Int J Food Microbiol, 2000 Nov 1, 61(2-3), 199 - 207 Efficacy of electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) and chemically modified water on different types of foodborne pathogens; Kim C et al.; This study was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) and chemically modified water with properties similar to the EO water for inactivation of different types of foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes and Bacillus cereus) . A five-strain cocktail of each microorganism was exposed to deionized water (control), EO water and chemically modified water . To evaluate the effect of individual properties (pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) and residual chlorine) of treatment solutions on microbial inactivation, iron was added to reduce ORP readings and neutralizing buffer was added to neutralize chlorine . Inactivation of E . coli O157:H7 occurred within 30 s after application of JAW EO water with 10 mg/l residual chlorine and chemically modified solutions containing 13 mg/l residual chlorine . Inactivation of Gram-positive and -negative microorganisms occurred within 10 s after application of ROX EO water with 56 mg/l residual chlorine and chemically modified solutions containing 60 mg/l residual chlorine . B . cereus was more resistant to the treatments than E . coli O157:H7 and L . monocytogenes and only 3 log10 reductions were achieved after 10 s of ROX EO water treatment . B . cereus spores were the most resistant pathogen . However, more than 3 log10 reductions were achieved with 120-s EO water treatment. AIHAJ, 2000 Sep-Oct, 61(5), 738 - 42 Review of Legionnaires' disease; Shelton BG et al.; This review seeks to assist industrial hygienists in the prevention of Legionnaires' disease caused by Legionella bacteria . Breathing water droplets contaminated with Legionella bacteria, in which the organism has been permitted to amplify, causes this disease . Possible sources of transmission include nearly all manmade building water systems . Legionella organisms, found in most natural water sources but at very low concentrations, can thrive under conditions of warmth in these manmade systems . Primary prevention of Legionnaires' disease requires prevention of amplification of Legionella in water systems . This, in turn, requires familiarity with the system and all its components, and effective maintenance and water treatment . However, good maintenance and water treatment regimens alone cannot assure that amplification will not occur somewhere in the system . Systematic microbiological testing for Legionella and appropriate interpretation of the testing results can be powerful assets in prevention by enabling the detection and control of amplification . The occurrence of a confirmed or suspected case of Legionnaires' disease in a building occupant may indicate transmission within the facility; this poses an immediate crisis for the facility manager . An aggressive intervention is indicated to search for previously unknown additional cases of illness, to detect potential sources of transmission, and to decontaminate any suspected sources of transmission on an emergency basis . Once adequate remediation has been achieved and confirmed by microbiological testing, on-going control measures are essential with periodic microbiological investigation to assure continuing prevention of amplification. Environ Exp Bot, 2000 Nov 1, 44(3), 185 - 194 The influence of elevated carbon dioxide and water availability on herbaceous weed development and growth of transplanted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda); Gavazzi M et al.; Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings were grown in competition with native weeds using soil and seed bank collected from recently chopped and burned areas near Appomattox, Virginia . One-year-old seedlings were planted and weeds allowed to germinate from the native seed bank while being exposed to CO(2) (ambient and elevated - approximately 700 ppm) and water (water stressed and well watered) treatments for approximately one growing season in a greenhouse . Elevated CO(2) did not influence total weed biomass; however, C(3) weed community development was favored over C(4) weed community development in elevated CO(2) regardless of water availability . This suggests that weed community composition may shift toward C(3) plants in a future elevated CO(2) atmosphere . Pine growth was significantly greater in the well watered and elevated CO(2) treatments compared to the water stressed and ambient treatments, respectively, even though they were competing with native herbaceous weeds for resources . There was a significant water and CO(2) interaction for pine root:shoot ratio . Under elevated CO(2), root:shoot ratio was significantly greater in the water stressed treatment than the well watered treatment . In contrast, there was no significant difference in the root:shoot ratio under the ambient CO(2) treatment for either water treatment . These results suggest that loblolly pine seedlings will respond favorably in an elevated CO(2) atmosphere, even under dry conditions and competing with herbaceous weeds. Epidemiol Infect, 2000 Aug, 125(1), 87 - 92 A serological survey of college students for antibody to Cryptosporidium before and after the introduction of a new water filtration plant; Frost FJ et al.; In April 1997, a large city in the northeastern United States changed their drinking water treatment practices . The city, which previously provided only chlorination for their surface water sources added filtration in addition to chlorination . To assess whether Cryptosporidium infections rates declined following filtration, we tested serological responses to 15/17-kDa and 27-kDa Cryptosporidium antigens among 107 community college students 1 month before and 225 students 5 months after filtration . Results suggest that levels of Cryptosporidium infections did not decline following water filtration . However, seasonal changes in other exposures may have confounded the findings . Swimming in a lake, stream or public pool and drinking untreated water from a lake or stream predicted a more intense response to one or both markers . Residence in the city, not drinking city tap water or drinking bottled water, gender, travel or exposure to pets, young pets, diapers or a household child in day care were not found to be predictive of more or less intense serological responses for either the 15/17-kDa and 27-kDa antigen. Chemosphere, 2000 Aug, 41(3), 363 - 70 Degradation of sodium 4-dodecylbenzenesulphonate photoinduced by Fe(III) in aqueous solution; Mailhot G et al.; The Fe(III)-photoinduced degradation of 4-dodecylbenzenesulphonate (DBS) in aqueous solution was investigated . The mixing of DBS (1 mm) and Fe(III) (1 mm) solutions immediately led to the formation of a precipitate that contained DBS and monomeric Fe(OH)2+, the predominant Fe(III) species . Both species were also present in the supernatant . Irradiation of the supernatant solution resulted in a photoredox process that yielded Fe(II) and *OH radicals . The disappearance of DBS was shown to involve only attack by *OH radicals; the quantum yield of DBS disappearance is similar to the quantum yield of *OH radical formation . A wavelength effect was also observed; the rate of DBS disappearance was higher for shorter wavelength irradiation . Five photoproducts, all containing the benzene sulphonate group, were identified . *OH radicals preferentially abstract hydrogen from the carbon in the alpha position of the aromatic ring . The results show that the Fe(III)-photoinduced degradation of DBS could be used as an alternative method for polluted water treatment. Risk Anal, 2000 Aug, 20(4), 495 - 511 An integrated risk model of a drinking-water-borne cryptosporidiosis outbreak; Casman EA et al.; A dynamic risk model is developed to track the occurrence and evolution of a drinking-water-borne cryptosporidiosis outbreak . The model characterizes and integrates the various environmental, medical, institutional, and behavioral factors that determine outbreak development and outcome . These include contaminant delivery and detection, water treatment efficiency, the timing of interventions, and the choices that people make when confronted with a known or suspected risk . The model is used to evaluate the efficacy of alternative strategies for improving risk management during an outbreak, and to identify priorities for improvements in the public health system . Modeling results indicate that the greatest opportunity for curtailing a large outbreak is realized by minimizing delays in identifying and correcting a drinking-water problem . If these delays cannot be reduced, then the effectiveness of risk communication in preemptively reaching and persuading target populations to avoid exposure becomes important. Med Confl Surviv, 2000 Jul-Sep, 16(3), 267 - 80 The impact on civilians of the bombing of Kosovo and Serbia; Ashford MW et al.; Before the 1999 bombing, Kosovo was among the poorest regions in Europe, with low scores on indices of health care . After the war, housing for much of the population is below even basically acceptable standards and health care is disrupted, with serious risk of epidemic diseases . Societal disintegration has led to high levels of stress . In Serbia, also a poor country, which already suffered from high levels of pollution before the war, large amounts of several highly toxic chemicals were liberated into the environment by the bombing . Targeting of electrical generating plant, water treatment facilities, Danube bridges, railways and roads has adverse effects on civilian life, endangers health and seriously affects health care . The military strategy of attack on civilian infrastructures is a war on public health. Soc Sci Med, 2000 Oct, 51(8), 1211 - 20 To boil or not: drinking water for children in a periurban barrio; Mclennan JD; Boiling water, or other water purification methods, are common recommendations of health promoters in developing countries to improve the quality of drinking water in an attempt to decrease the incidence of childhood diarrhea . Health education programs frequently employ an approach based on knowledge deficits to promote this practice . However, there has been little published about water purification practices or associated variables such as knowledge deficits . We interviewed 266 randomly selected child caregivers about water purification in a poor periurban district of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic . Though most reported that they provided purified drinking water for their children when they were babies, only half of the children five years of age and under were regularly drinking purified water at the time of the study . Only one knowledge variable remained significantly related to purifying drinking water in the final multivariate model . Other factors that remained in the final model were level of maternal education, endorsing being too tired to boil water and a global measure of social support . Several other hypothesized variables were not related to purifying water . Knowledge deficits may play only a limited role in determining this prevention practice . Further work is required to better identify key factors to improve this practice and hence guide health promotion efforts. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 2000 Aug, 107(8), 311 - 5 {Parasitic zoonotic disease agents in human and animal drinking water}; Karanis P; Human- and veterinary important parasites of the subkingdom of protozoans and helminths infect humans and animals by ingestion of parasites in contaminated water . The parasites are excreted from the body of infected humans, livestock, zoo animals, companion animals or wild animals in the feces . Recreational waters, agricultural practices and wild animals serve as vehicles of transmission of the parasites in the water supplies . The following topics are addressed: a) the life cycles of parasitic diseases-causing agents with proven or potential transmission via water b) the development and the current research status of the analytical techniques for the detection of parasitic diseases-causing agents from water c) the occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water supplies and in treated water d) the possible water sources and transmission ways of the parasites into the water supplies e) the behaviour and the possibilities for the removal or elimination of the parasites by water treatment. Environ Health Perspect, 2000 Sep, 108(9), 883 - 6 Relation between stillbirth and specific chlorination by-products in public water supplies; King WD et al.; During water treatment, chlorine reacts with naturally occurring organic matter in surface water to produce a number of by-products . Of the by-products formed, trihalomethanes (THMs) are among the highest in concentration . We conducted a retrospective cohort study to evaluate the relationship between the level of total THM and specific THMs in public water supplies and risk for stillbirth . The cohort was assembled from a population-based perinatal database in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia and consisted of almost 50,000 singleton deliveries between 1988 and 1995 . Individual exposures were assigned by linking mother's residence at the time of delivery to the levels of specific THMs monitored in public water supplies . Analysis was conducted for all stillbirths and for cause-of-death categories based on the physiologic process responsible for the fetal death . Total THMs and the specific THMs were each associated with increased stillbirth risk . The strongest association was observed for bromodichloromethane exposure, where risk doubled for those exposed to a level of {greater and equal to} 20 microg/L compared to those exposed to a level < 5 microg/L (relative risk = 1 . 98, 95% confidence interval, 1.23-3.49) . Relative risk estimates associated with THM exposures were larger for asphyxia-related deaths than for unexplained deaths or for stillbirths overall . These findings suggest a need to consider specific chlorination by-products in relation to stillbirth risk, in particular bromodichloromethane and other by-product correlates . The finding of a stronger effect for asphyxia deaths requires confirmation and research into possible mechanisms. J Clin Microbiol, 2000 Oct, 38(10), 3681 - 5 Genotyping of rotaviruses in environmental water and stool samples in Southern Switzerland by nucleotide sequence analysis of 189 base pairs at the 5' end of the VP7 gene; Baggi F et al.; Stool specimens from children (<4 years old) with diarrhea were collected over a 1-year period in Ticino (southern region of Switzerland) . During the same period, environmental samples were collected from surface waters in the proximity of major water treatment plants . From treatment plants, samples were collected from the raw sewage and before the release of the treated water . From rivers, samples were collected before and after receiving the treated waters . A single-step reverse transcription (RT)-PCR amplification of the entire VP7 gene from extracted double-stranded RNA was developed . For the water samples, a further nested PCR was necessary to increase sensitivity . All amplified viral products were sequenced, and the sequence profile was compared to that of the VP7 genes of human and animal rotaviruses from GenBank . Rotavirus strains are characterized by outer capsid proteins G (glycoprotein) and P (protease-cleaved protein) . Correct G genotyping of viral sequences from stool and water samples was possible by analyzing only 189 bp at the 5' end of the VP7 gene . In the Ticino region, the most predominant G genotype among clinical and water samples was G1 . Genotypes G2 and G4 were found only among clinical samples . We also detected rotavirus G1-type sequences in feces from a healthy adult . This finding corroborates the hypothesis that healthy adults act as potential reservoirs for the spread of rotavirus in the environment . In our experiments, this RT-PCR-based method for rotavirus genotyping has proven to be a useful tool for epidemiological investigations. Gig Sanit, 1998 Nov-Dec, (6), 22 - 4 {Organic pollution of the Ural river in the area of open water supply of Orenburg}; Tsinberg MB et al.; The water from the Ural river contains about 230 organic chemical substances, including especially hazardous pollutants . The levels of some chemicals are 2 to 13 times higher than their maximum allowable concentrations . It is necessary to use reliable methods for water treatment at waterworks to lower the levels of drinking water pollutants. J Dairy Sci, 2000 Aug, 83(8), 1887 - 91 Removal of dairy soil from heated stainless steel surfaces: use of ozonated water as a prerinse; Guzel-Seydim ZB et al.; Square (2.54 x 2.54 cm2) 304 stainless steel metal plates were cleaned, passivated, and soiled by autoclaving (121 degrees C at 15 psi for 15 min) with reconstituted nonfat dry milk (20% solids) . Fifteen-minute treatments using either warm water (40 degrees C) or ozonated cold water (10 degrees C) were conducted to compare prerinse cleaning potential of soiled metal plates . The chemical oxygen demand determination was performed on extracted organic material from treated metal plates . Results indicated that the ozone treatment removed 84% of soil from metal plates versus 51% soil removal by the warm water treatment, but the effectiveness of the two treatments did not differ (P > 0.05) . Cleaning effects were visualized using scanning electron microscopy at 200x and 2000x magnification . The amount of soil film present on stainless steel metal surfaces was visibly lower on ozonated treatments versus on warm water treatments. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 2000 Jul-Aug, 10(4), 321 - 6 Household exposures to drinking water disinfection by-products: whole blood trihalomethane levels; Backer LC et al.; Exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs), such as trihalomethanes (THMs), has been associated with bladder and colorectal cancer in humans . Exposure to DBPs has typically been determined by examining historical water treatment records and reconstructing study participants' water consumption histories . However, other exposure routes, such as dermal absorption and inhalation, may be important components of an individual's total exposure to drinking water DBPs . In this study, we examined individuals' exposure to THMs through drinking, showering, or bathing in tap water . Thirty-one adult volunteers showered with tap water for 10 min (n = 11), bathed for 10 min in a bathtub filled with tap water (n = 10), or drank 1 l of tap water during a 10 min time period (n = 10) . Participants provided three 10 ml blood samples: one sample immediately before the exposure; one sample 10 min after the exposure ended; and one sample 30 min (for shower and tub exposure) or 1 h ( for ingestion) after the exposure ended . A sample of the water (from the tap, from the bath, or from the shower) was collected for each participant . We analyzed water samples and whole blood for THMs (bromoform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and chloroform) using a purge-and-trap/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method with detection limits in the parts-per-quadrillion range . The highest levels of THMs were found in the blood samples from people who took 10 min showers, whereas the lowest levels were found in the blood samples from people who drank 1 l of water in 10 min . The results from this study indicate that household activities such as bathing and showering are important routes for human exposure to THMs. Am J Med Sci, 2000 Aug, 320(2), 96 - 9 Aluminum exposure in chronic renal failure in iberoamerica at the end of the 1990s: overview and perspectives; Fernandez-Martin JL et al.; Epidemic aluminum neurotoxicity has virtually disappeared in the dialysis population; however, sporadic toxic effects caused by contamination of water with aluminum are still reported . In this review, the current situation in Iberoamerica is analyzed . Exposure to aluminum through dialysate shows considerable geographical differences even within the same country, including seasonal variability . Sometimes the tap water showed very high aluminum content that does not permit the water treatment system to efficiently remove all the aluminum, forcing the use of water treatment systems with a double reverse-osmosis filter on line . The use of adequate water treatment systems and a correct control policy has improved the quality of the dialysate, minimizing the aluminum exposure . However, an additional problem in Iberoamerica is the difficulty to obtain aluminum-free concentrates for the preparation of the final dialysis solution . Aluminum still seems to be implicated in a great percentage of symptomatic low-bone remodeling lesions in South America compared with Europe, demonstrating that exposure to aluminum through dialysate is still a cause of concern in some areas of the world. Acta Cient Venez, 1999, 50 Suppl 1, 75 - 80 {Application of advanced oxidant systems in the treatment of residual waters in the petroleum industry (Fenton system)}; Lopez R et al.; Typical contaminants from the oil industry were treated with the Fenton system (H2O2/Fe2+) under normal conditions of pressure and temperature . The treated contaminants, in harzadous concentrations, were the following: m-cresol, 2-chlorophenol, and methyl-tertbutyl -ether (MTBE) . Additionally, waters contaminated with reformulated gasoline were also treated and the degradation of MTBE and volatile aromatics (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene) was followed . The system efficiency, in the contaminated water treatment of two different samples were also tested . One of the samples came from oil production operations and the other from a petrochemical plants complex . In all cases an advanced mineralization of the contaminants was observed in relatively short periods of time . The rate constants, at room temperature, for degradation of m-cresol, 2-chlorophenol and MTBE were measured. J Hosp Infect, 2000 Aug, 45(4), 263 - 77 Decontamination of minimally invasive surgical endoscopes and accessories; Ayliffe G; Minimal Access Therapy Decontamination Working Group; (1) Infections following invasive endoscopy are rare and are usually of endogenous origin . Nevertheless, infections do occur due to inadequate cleaning and disinfection and the use of contaminated rinse water and processing equipment . (2) Rigid and flexible operative endoscopes and accessories should be thoroughly cleaned and preferably sterilized using properly validated processes . (3) Heat tolerant operative endoscopes and accessories should be sterilized using a vacuum assisted steam sterilizer . Use autoclavable instrument trays or containers to protect equipment during transit and processing . Small bench top sterilizers without vacuum assisted air removal are unsuitable for packaged and lumened devices . (4) Heat sensitive rigid and flexible endoscopes and accessories should preferably be sterilized using ethylene oxide, low temperature steam and formaldehyde (rigid only) or gas plasma (if appropriate) . (5) If there are insufficient instruments or time to sterilize invasive endoscopes, or if no suitable method is available locally, they may be disinfected by immersion in 2% glutaraldehyde or a suitable alternative . An immersion time of at least 10 min should be adopted for glutaraldehyde . This is sufficient to inactivate most vegetative bacteria and viruses including HIV and hepatitis B virus (HBV) . Longer contact times of 20 min or more may be necessary if a mycobacterial infection is known or suspected . At least 3 h immersion in glutaraldehyde is required to kill spores . (6) Glutaraldehyde is irritant and sensitizing to the skin, eyes and respiratory tract . Measures must be taken to ensure glutaraldehyde is used in a safe manner, i.e., total containment and/or extraction of harmful vapour and the provision of suitable personal protective equipment, i.e., gloves, apron and eye protection if splashing could occur . Health surveillance of staff is recommended and should include a pre-employment enquiry regarding asthma, skin and mucosal sensitivity problems and lung function testing by spirometry . (7) Possible alternative disinfectants to glutaraldehyde include peracetic acid (0.2-0.35%), chlorine dioxide (700-1100 ppm) and superoxidized water . These are very effective, killing vegetative bacteria, including mycobacteria, and viruses in 5 min and bacterial spores in 10 min . An endorsement of compatibility with endoscopes, accessories and processing equipment is required from both the solution/device manufacturer and the endoscope manufacturer . Other important considerations are stability, cost and safety from the user and environmental standpoints . (8) Cleaning and disinfection or sterilization should be undertaken by trained staff in a dedicated area, e.g., SSD or TSSU . A suitable training programme is described . (9) If endoscopes are processed by immersion in disinfectants, harmful residues must be removed by thorough rinsing . Sterile or bacteria free water is essential for rinsing all invasive endoscopes and accessories to prevent recontamination . (10) If an automated washer disinfector is used it must be effective, non-damaging, reliable, easy to use and its performance regularly monitored . (11) If used, washer disinfectors and other processing equipment should be disinfected on a regular basis, i.e., between patients or at the start of each session . This will prevent biofilm formation and recontamination of instruments during rinsing . Disinfection should include the water treatment system, if present . (12) To comply with the Medical Devices Directive, manufacturers are obliged to provide full details on how to decontaminate the reusable devices they supply . This should include details of compatibility with heat, pressure, moisture, processing chemicals and ultrasonics . (13) The Infection Control Team should always be involved in the formulation and implementation of decontamination policies . Wherever possible, the national good practice guidelines produced by the Medical Devices Agency and/or professional societies shoul Environ Health Perspect, 2000 Aug, 108(8), 679 - 84 Use of iodine for water disinfection: iodine toxicity and maximum recommended dose; Backer H et al.; Iodine is an effective, simple, and cost-efficient means of water disinfection for people who vacation, travel, or work in areas where municipal water treatment is not reliable . However, there is considerable controversy about the maximum safe iodine dose and duration of use when iodine is ingested in excess of the recommended daily dietary amount . The major health effect of concern with excess iodine ingestion is thyroid disorders, primarily hypothyroidism with or without iodine-induced goiter . A review of the human trials on the safety of iodine ingestion indicates that neither the maximum recommended dietary dose (2 mg/day) nor the maximum recommended duration of use (3 weeks) has a firm basis . Rather than a clear threshold response level or a linear and temporal dose-response relationship between iodine intake and thyroid function, there appears to be marked individual sensitivity, often resulting from unmasking of underlying thyroid disease . The use of iodine for water disinfection requires a risk-benefit decision based on iodine's benefit as a disinfectant and the changes it induces in thyroid physiology . By using appropriate disinfection techniques and monitoring thyroid function, most people can use iodine for water treatment over a prolonged period of time. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 2000 Mar, 203(1), 83 - 5 Intestinal cell adhesion and maximum growth temperature of psychrotrophic aeromonads from surface water; Schubert RH; Investigation of 650 Aeromonas strains taken from surface water--used as a source of drinking water--and from the associated drinking water treatment plants has demonstrated that only a small proportion of the strains are endowed with intestinal cell adhesion and growth at 39 degrees C; these characteristics are concurrently encountered in Aeromonas strains from clinical material . The investigations permit the conclusion that even the Aeromonas species, of which certain strains are pathogenic to human, cannot generally be viewed as being potentially pathogenic. Poult Sci, 2000 Aug, 79(8), 1200 - 3 Efficacy of an herbal extract on the microbiological quality of broiler carcasses during a simulated chill; Dickens JA et al.; Protecta II, an herbal extract on an NaCl carrier, was evaluated in a 30-min, 1 C simulated chill for its effectiveness of lowering microbial counts on broiler carcasses . Eighteen broiler carcasses were obtained from a local processing plant after final wash but before chill, placed into an insulated container, and transported to the research facility for treatment . Six plant run controls (PRC) were immediately bagged on return to the pilot plant, and a whole-carcass rinse was performed . The remaining carcasses were subjected to a 30-min chill (1 C) in tap water or a 2% solution of Protecta II, (n = 6 per treatment) . After treatment, carcasses were rinsed with tap water and subjected to the whole-carcass rinse procedure . All rinse diluents were microbiologically analyzed for total aerobes, coliforms, generic Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter . Six replications were analyzed on 6 different d for a total 36 carcasses per treatment and 36 PRC . The PRC carcasses had 3.7, 2.5, 2.1, and 2.0 log10 cfu/mL for total aerobes, coliforms, generic E . coli, and Campylobacter . Water treatment significantly reduced counts (2.6, 1.4, 0.7, and 0.9 log10 cfu/mL, respectively) when compared with the PRC . Protecta II treatment significantly reduced counts (P < 0.01) even further to counts of 0.06, 0.04, 0.01, and 0.00 log10 cfu/mL for total aerobes, coliforms, Campylobacter, and E . coli, respectively . Detectable levels of the monitored organisms were 1 cell/mL (log10 0) for the E . coli, coliforms, and total counts and 10 cells/mL (log10 1) for the Campylobacter . Microbial counts for carcasses treated with Protecta II would be considered too low to be detected (<1 cell/mL). Kansenshogaku Zasshi, 2000 Jun, 74(6), 518 - 26 Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis after contamination of the public water supply in Saitama Prefecture, Japan, in 1996; Yamamoto N et al.; An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in Ogose Town, Saitama Prefecture . Japan, in June 1996 . Of 12,345 respondents to a questionnaire sent to households in the town (population; 13,809), 8,812 (71.4%) reported an acute gastrointestinal illness some time between May and July . In addition, 274 traceable visitors at local inns, golf courses, and the like during this period and 54 employees from out of town were infected . Cases of cryptosporidiosis were estimated to 9,140 . Of these, 2,856 subjects were treated at outpatient clinics and 24 subjects were hospitalized (some subjects counted twice) . No deaths were attributed to the outbreak . Among the visitors to Ogose who were traced, 7 persons who stayed only one day during the outbreak and drank half a glass to 2 glasses (100 to 360 ml) of tap water had cryptosporidiosis confirmed by laboratory tests . The median incubation period for the 14 persons for whom this calculation was possible was 6.4 days (range, 5 to 8 days) . Of 469 pupils reporting details of their fever and diarrhea, abdominal cramps, or these combined signs and symptoms, the median maximum body temperature was 37.8 degrees C (range, 36.7 to 40.3 degrees C) . The duration of illness, reported by 608 of the pupils, was 5.2 days (range, 1 to 15 days), and that reported by 187 employees was 4.8 days (range, 1 to 18 days) . The longest known time for discharge of oocysts after onset was 44 days . Blood was not found in the 609 stool specimens examined . The outbreak was caused by contamination of the town's potable water by Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts . The town's water treatment plant treated river water by coagulation, sedimentation, sand filtration, and chlorination . Contamination arose because of various natural and artificial factors: one was that the monthly precipitation in May was much lower than average, causing the river water level to drop . Another factor was heavy rainfall one night in May that increased water turbidity . The amounts of the coagulant added seemed to be insufficient . There are two inns, three public lavatories, and two small-scale wastewater treatment plants upstream 400 m and 1,200 m of the intake point of the town's water treatment plant . However, there are no farms with livestock in the area . We suggest that the location of the water treatment facilities was inappropriate, and that oocysts had circulated from the potable water to humans to sewage to the river and back to the potable water. Clin Chem Lab Med, 2000 Mar, 38(3), 221 - 5 Biochemical and hematological changes in low-level aluminum intoxication; Gonzalez-Revalderia J et al.; The aim of this study was to investigate the biochemical and hematological changes in patients on routine hemodialysis treatment when they were accidentally exposed to moderately high serum aluminum concentrations during a period of time of less than four months . We studied the changes in biochemical and hematological measurements in 33 patients on dialysis in our hospital before and during the exposure to about 0.85 pmol/l of aluminum in dialysis water due to a malfunction of the reverse osmosis system of water purification . Patients showed a decrease in the hemoglobin concentration from 115+/-12.4 g/l to 108+/-12.2 g/l (p=0.026) and in the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration from 5.15+/-0.22 to 5.02+/-0.30 mmol/l (p=0.014) . Ferritin was decreased from 243+/-192 microg/l to 196+/-163 microg/l (p=0.047) and transferrin saturation from 0.20+/-0.06 to 0.15+/-0.07 (p=0.004) . Biochemical measurements related to calcium-phosphate metabolism did not change . Otherwise, all patients showed an increase in serum aluminum from 0.56+/-0.44 to 1.63+/-0.52 micromol/l (p<0.001) . No differences were detected in serum aluminum between patients receiving and not receiving oral aluminum salts . Even moderately high aluminum concentrations maintained during a short period of time could produce significant hematological alterations and a depletion of body iron stores before clinical manifestations were evident. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper, 1998 Nov-Dec, 74(11-12), 111 - 8 Reduction in 222radon concentration due to water treatment processes; Panatto D et al.; In 40 samples of drinkable water taken from public fountains in the Province of Genoa determinations of 222Rn concentration were performed . The results were related to data obtained in a previous study on 222Rn concentration in spring water in the same areas, in order to assess a possible variation due to water treatment and to the aqueduct piping length . Radon concentration was also related to the main geographical areas in the Province and to the different geological formations . The average concentration was 0.92 +/- 0.86 Bq/l, and it can be related to equivalent dose to the population of 0.16 mSv/year . Our data show that water treatment processes cause a reduction in Radon concentration ranging between 58% and 93%, from picking up to utilization. J Econ Entomol, 2000 Jun, 93(3), 1017 - 20 Hot water treatment and insecticidal coatings for disinfesting limes of mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae); Gould WP et al.; Hot water immersion and insecticidal coatings were tested to determine if they could be used to disinfest Persian limes, Citrus latifolia Tanaka, of the mealybug pests Planococcus citri Risso and Pseudococcus odermatti Miller & Williams . A 20-min 49 degrees C hot water immersion treatment is effective in killing mealybugs and all other arthropods tested found externally on limes, or under the calyx . No insects or mites were found to survive after the 20-min hot water treatment . In this test, 7,200 limes were treated with 1,308 insects killed and zero survivors . Treatment at 49 degrees C for 20 min did not significantly affect quality when treated fruit were compared with untreated control fruit . Four coatings were tested at a 3% rate: two petroleum-based oils (Ampol and Sunspray oil), a vegetable oil (natural oil), and a soap (Mpede) . The coatings gave up to 94% kill (Ampol) of mealybugs, which is not sufficient to provide quarantine security . The coatings might be effective as a postharvest dip before shipment. J Hosp Infect, 2000 Jul, 45(3), 218 - 24 Identification of the bacteriologicalcontamination of a water treatment line used for haemodialysis and its disinfection; Morin P; Renal haemodialysis care units in hospitals use enormous amounts of potable water for the functioning of 'artificial kidneys' . In order to avoid complications with patients' blood this water has to be specially treated . However, the treatment line itself can induce problems due to a high concentration of bacteria in the water . A high bacterial load, as well as bacterial toxins, can provoke immunological reactions in the patients . This paper shows that a granular activated carbon (GAC) filter is a source of bacterial contamination of the water due to the presence of a biofilm on the medium's surface . The majority of the bacteria released are Gram-negative . Because sloughing events in the biofilm can lead to dangerously high concentrations of bacteria and endotoxin levels in water, it is important to control this phenomenon . In treatment lines, GAC filters are regularly chlorinated . Our pilot experiment studied the disinfection of the filter with sodium hypochlorite and peracetic acid . Our results show that both disinfectants have a weak and transient effect on the biomass in the filter . It appears that chemical treatment of the filter is not the ideal solution to the bacteriological threat . Moreover, disinfection of the GAC filter transiently increases the contamination of the water . Alternative solutions to the use of chemical disinfection procedures are discussed. Br Med Bull, 2000, 56(1), 74 - 83 Microbiological safety of water; Dawson DJ et al.; Significant advances in water treatment over the last century have resulted in massive improvements in the microbiological safety of public drinking water supplies in the UK and the developed countries . Incidences of illness due to poor treatment or post-treatment contamination are rare, but when they occur tend to attract considerable media attention . A well managed water treatment works and supply system can provide high quality drinking water wherever in the world it is located . As a rule, throughout the world, private supplies tend to be of a poorer quality than public supplies, but poorly managed public supplies have the potential to make a large number of people ill and continued effort is needed to maintain and improve drinking water quality world-wide. Symp Ser Soc Appl Microbiol, 2000, (29), 124S - 132S Waterborne Escherichia coli O157; Chalmers RM et al.; The waterborne route of Vero cytotoxin-producing E . coli (VTEC) O157 infection was first suggested in two unconnected human cases in 1985 . Since then, waterborne VTEC O157 has been identified in sporadic cases and in outbreaks of illness . Recreational waters, private and municipal supplies have been implicated from microbiological, environmental and epidemiological studies of cases . In addition, a research cohort study of farm workers identified exposure to private water supplies as a risk factor for having antibodies to E . coli O157 . Sources of contamination are thought to be animal and human faeces or sewage . The presence of low numbers of target organisms in water makes microbiological confirmation difficult, therefore epidemiological evidence has been essential in outbreak investigations . Despite the potential for contamination of water with VTEC O157, waterborne infection is relatively rare largely due to the susceptibility of the organism to water treatment processes . This paper presents the evidence for waterborne VTEC O157 infection, considering current microbiological, environmental and particularly epidemiological information. Symp Ser Soc Appl Microbiol, 2000, (29), 117S - 123S The fate of Escherichia coli through water treatment and in distribution; McMath SM et al.; The removal of E . coli bacteria at each stage of water treatment is presented, showing how the filtration stages contribute most to reduction of bacterial numbers in the water . At treatment works without filtration stages, the emphasis is put on catchment management to limit contamination of the raw water and ensure that the numbers of viable E . coli in the source water remain low . Routine monitoring of the raw water provides data on seasonal trends in numbers of E . coli bacteria and allows effective management of supply . In the UK there is no evidence that E . coli grows in the water distribution system, whether in the planktonic stage or within biofilms (O'Neill et al . 1997) . The detection of E . coli in the distribution system is rare and prompts a thorough investigation . Repeat samples are taken from the point which originally failed, along with a number of hydraulically linked samples including samples from hydrants . The response to the detection of E . coli is discussed . A series of experiments carried out on a pilot pipe system is briefly described and the results discussed in relation to the routine samples taken in the Thames Water Supply area. Med Health R I, 2000 May, 83(5), 140 - 3 Water systems to report drinking water quality to all customers: how can health professionals prepare for the questions that these reports will generate? McCarty K, Swallow J, Vanderslice R, Combs WS Jr. The ultimate safety of drinking water depends upon protection of source waters and construction and maintenance of reliable drinking water treatment and distribution systems . These objectives require public support . Physicians can encourage their patients to call their water suppliers and advocate for investment in effective treatment systems and support zoning that will protect water supply watersheds and wellheads . The Consumer Confidence Reports are meant to inform consumers about their drinking water supply . Consumers should use the reports to verify that their drinking water meets all health standards and to understand some of the potential threats to their drinking water quality . Physicians may use the reports as an opportunity to discuss the many types of environmental exposures and ways to reduce these exposures . As a crucial component of the public health community, this is your opportunity to encourage your patients to become more aware of their environment and its impact on their health. Am J Kidney Dis, 2000 Jul, 36(1), 199 - 204 An outbreak of Burkholderia cepacia bacteremia in hemodialysis patients: an epidemiologic and molecular study; Kaitwatcharachai C et al.; The risk of blood stream infections increases in patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis . Outbreaks of infection are usually caused by contamination of the water supply, water treatment, distribution system, or dialyzer reprocessing . We report an outbreak of subclavian catheter-related Burkholderia cepacia bacteremia in nine patients undergoing hemodialysis . Using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, the bacterial isolates were clonally identical to Burkholderia cepacia isolated from residue of the diluted chlorhexidine-cetrimide solution used to disinfect the transfer forceps . These forceps were used to pick up cotton balls and gauze for dressing the subclavian catheter . Antibiotic therapy failed to cure the infections, and all patients required catheter removal . Pathology showed numerous bacilli embedded in the biofilm on the inner surface of the removed catheters . In conclusion, our study showed that contaminated chlorhexidine-cetrimide solution was the source of a bacteremic outbreak in nine patients who developed catheter-related Burkholderia cepacia infection. Microb Drug Resist, 2000 Spring, 6(1), 37 - 47 Quinupristin/dalfopristin-resistant enterococci of the satA (vatD) and satG (vatE) genotypes from different ecological origins in Germany; Werner G et al.; The semisynthetic streptogramin combination quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid) is a promising alternative for treatment of infections due to multiply resistant gram-positive bacteria including vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium . Resistance is mediated by acetyltransferases SatA (VatD) or SatG (VatE) . Recent papers have indicated a possible link between the use of the streptogramin virginiamycin S/M as a feed additive in commercial animal husbandry and a selection of quinupristin/dalfopristin-resistant E . faecium (QDRE) . We screened manure samples from two different turkey farms and from six different pig farms (using virginiamycin), samples from a sewage water treatment plant, 24 broiler carcasses, 10 pork samples, and 200 stool samples of nonhospitalized humans for QDRE . Our strain culture collection of hospital E . faecium isolates from the last 2 years was also reviewed for QDRE . All manure and sewage samples were positive for QDRE, as well as 11 from broiler carcasses (46%), 1 from pork (10%), and 28 from human stool specimens (14%) . Thirty-six hospital isolates of E . faecium exhibited resistance to quinupristin/dalfopristin . In 141 QDRE of different origin satA (vatD) and satG (vatE) genes were detected (seven isolates from humans with an unknown resistance mechanism) . Streptogramin resistance determinants were tansferable in filtermating experiments for 5 of 10 satA (vatD) and 9 of 22 satG (vatE) isolates . Different EcoRI patterns of satG (vatE) plasmids and corresponding hybridizations of the satG (vatE) gene indicated nonhomologous resistance plasmids in isolates of different origin . The results of this study indicate a common gene pool for streptogramin resistance in E . faecium of different ecological origin . A selection of QDRE using the streptogramin virginiamycin S/M as a feed additive and a spread of the resistance via the food chain to humans is probable. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 2000, 105, 413 - 9 Pollution of water sources and removal of pollutants by advanced drinking-water treatment in China; Wang L et al.; The pollution of water resources and drinking water sources in China is described in this paper with basic data . About 90% of surface waters and over 60% of drinking water sources in urban areas have been polluted to different extents . The main pollutants present in drinking water sources are organic substances, ammonia nitrogen, phenols, pesticides and pathogenic micro-organisms, some of which cannot be removed effectively by the traditional water treatment processes like coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination, and the product water usually does not meet Chinese national drinking water standards, when polluted source water is treated . In some drinking-water plants in China, advanced treatment processes including activated carbon filtration and adsorption, ozonation, biological activated carbon and membrane separation have been employed for further treatment of the filtrate from a traditional treatment system producing unqualified drinking water, to make final product water meet the WHO guidelines and some developed countries' standards, as well as the Chinese national standards for drinking water . Some case studies of advanced water treatment plants are described in this paper as well. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 2000, 105, 221 - 6 National Research Council report on potable reuse; Crook J; In 1998, the United States National Research Council prepared a report assessing the viability of potable reuse . The report concludes that planned indirect potable reuse is a viable application of reclaimed water but should be considered for implementation only after other alternative measures, such as development of new water sources, nonpotable reuse, and water conservation, have been evaluated and determined not to be economically or technically feasible . Although health-effects research has not indicated that there have been any adverse health effects resulting from drinking highly treated reclaimed water, those data are sparse . There are uncertainties associated with assessing the potential health risks of drinking reclaimed water . The report acknowledges that several issues remain unresolved regarding reclaimed water treatment and reliability, microbial and chemical constituents of concern, and water quality and health effects monitoring . Research needs include methods to detect emerging pathogens, identification and quantification of trace organic compounds, development of suitable in vivo toxicological methods, and evaluation of the effectiveness and reliability of multiple treatment barriers . The report also concludes that direct potable reuse is not a viable option to consider at this time. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 2000, 105, 125 - 31 Resource protection and resource management of drinking water-reservoirs in Thuringia--a prerequisite for high drinking-water quality; Willmitzer H; In face of widespread pollution of surface waters, strategies must be developed for the use of surface waters which protect the high quality standards of drinking water, starting with the catchment area via the reservoir to the consumer . As a rule, priority is given to the avoidance of contaminants directly at their point of origin . Water protection is always cheaper than expensive water-body restoration and water treatment . Complementary to the generally practised technical methods of raw water treatment with all their associated problems of energy input requirements, costs, and waste products, there is an increasing number of environmentally sound treatment technologies which use ecological principles as a basis to support the self-cleaning properties of flowing and dammed waters. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 2000, 105, 105 - 10 Water management for development of water quality in the Ruhr River basin; Klopp R; On the Ruhr, a small river running through hilly country and with a mean flow of 76 m3/s, 27 water works use the method of artificial groundwater recharge to produce 350 million m3 of drinking water annually . On the basis of a special act, the Ruhr River Association is responsible for water quality and water quantity management in the Ruhr basin . The present 94 municipal sewage treatment plants ensure that the raw water is sufficiently good to be turned into drinking water . In the Ruhr's lower reaches, where dry weather results in a 20% share of the entire water flow being treated wastewater, comparatively high concentration of substances of domestic or industrial origin are likely, including substances which municipal wastewater treatment measures cannot entirely remove . These substances include ammonium, coliform bacteria or pathogens, boron and organic trace substances . Although water treatment measures have greatly contributed to the considerable improvement of the Ruhr's water quality in the last few decades, it is desirable to continue to aim at a high standard of drinking water production technologies since the Ruhr is a surface water body influenced by anthropogenic factors . However, in the case of substances infiltrating into drinking water, legislation is required if a reduction of pollution appears to be necessary. Chemosphere, 2000 Sep, 41(5), 751 - 6 Bisphenol A: emissions from point sources; Furhacker M et al.; Bisphenol A is widely used for the production of epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics . Special in vitro test systems and animal experiments showed a weak estrogenic activity for Bisphenol A . Based on in vitro receptor interaction studies, the activity was estimated to be 2 x 10(-3) lower than that of estradiol . Especially aquatic wildlife could be endangered by waste water discharges . To manage possible risks arising from Bisphenol A contamination, the major fluxes need to be obtained and the contributors to the contamination of municipal treatment plants need to be determined . In this study, industrial emitters and communal waste waters were monitored simultaneously . Mixed samples were taken over periods of one week at nine sample sites . The results showed that the concentrations and fluxes were variable . The paper industry was the major Bisphenol A contributor to the influent of the waste water treatment plant . All the other fluxes measured, including two household areas, were considerably low . About 90% of the total load was removed during the waste water treatment. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2000 May, 46(1), 29 - 33 Aluminum fractions in drinking water from reservoirs; Schintu M et al.; To provide insight into aluminum speciation in raw and in finished water and to investigate the factors that can affect it, specific aluminum fractions have been isolated and analyzed in water samples from three drinking water reservoirs in Sardinia (Italy) and at the outlet of their treatment plants . All water treatment plants employed polyaluminum chloride as coagulant . The results demonstrate that the treatment of raw water with the aluminum-based coagulant did not increase the concentration of the metal in the finished water . Aluminum fractions were quite different in raw water and in finished water . More than 80% of the aluminum in raw water was in the particulate form . In the dissolved fraction, organic forms were present at higher concentrations in the raw water, while following water treatment (coagulation, flocculation, filtration) most of the aluminum was in the inorganic form . Most of the dissolved Al in raw water was strongly bound or polymeric colloidal, while percentages of monomeric Al ranging from 40 to 62% were present in the finished water . FEMS Microbiol Lett, 2000 May 15, 186(2), 301 - 6 Tetrahydrofuran degradation by a newly isolated culture of Pseudonocardia sp . strain K1; Kohlweyer U et al.; An organism capable to grow aerobically on tetrahydrofuran as sole source of carbon and energy was isolated from a waste water treatment plant . The organism designated as strain K1 was identified as Pseudonocardia sp . by chemotaxonomic and morphological characteristics as well as analysis of the gene encoding the 16S rRNA . The highest binary sequence similarity value of 99.0% was obtained to Pseudonocardia sulfidoxydans and Pseudonocardia hydrocarbonoxydans . Optimal growth with a doubling time of 14 h was observed at a tetrahydrofuran concentration of 20 mM and pH 7.0 at 28 degrees C . Under these conditions the substrate was completely degraded within 72 h . In situ concentrations of up to 60 mM were tolerated by the organism without a significantly increased doubling time . The strain also grew on diethyl ether, polyethylene glycol and on gamma-butyrolactone and 4-hydroxybutyrate - two potential intermediates in tetrahydrofuran degradation - as sole carbon and energy source. Mol Cell Probes, 2000 Apr, 14(2), 121 - 6 Quantitative polymerase chain (QPCR) reaction using the MIMIC approach to estimate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, an intestinal pathogen, in municipal water treatment sludge samples; Udeh P et al.; An accurate estimation of the number of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water treatment plant sludge was determined using the Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (QPCR) method . Approximately 8x10(6)purified viable oocysts were spiked into raw water and treated by conventional water treatment methods . The settled sludge was collected and the DNA extracted . The QPCR Mimic produced two competing products that were 300 and 435 base pairs in size . The log ratio of the products were used in the standard curve to determine a final estimation of oocysts in the sludge sample . The final number of oocysts in the sludge sample was estimated at 258 oocyst per two litres of treated water . This is the first time sludge from a water treatment process has been tested for presence of C . parvum oocysts, which is a known contaminant of drinking water . The QPCR method can be used to test other sludge samples and help estimate the sanitary risks associated with using sludge to fertilize agricultural lands . Semin Dial, 2000 Mar-Apr, 13(2), 92 - 6 Outbreaks of infection and/or pyrogenic reactions in dialysis patients; Roth VR et al.; These dialysis-related outbreaks demonstrate the ongoing potential for infection-related morbidity and mortality among dialysis patients . Many of these outbreaks could have been prevented by adequate water treatment, proper disinfection of water systems and dialysis machines, adherence to recommended reprocessing protocols in centers reusing dialyzers, and more stringent quality control monitoring . Finally, these outbreaks highlight the importance of active surveillance for adverse events among dialysis patients . The incidence of gram-negative bacteremia, pyrogenic reactions, and peritonitis should be monitored over time and any increase in incidence investigated. J Hazard Mater, 2000 Jun 30, 74(3), 133 - 47 The variation of mass and disinfection by-product formation potential of dissolved organic matter fractions along a conventional surface water treatment plant; Marhaba TF et al.; Dissolved organic matter (DOM) influences many aspects of water treatment, including the formation of potentially harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs) when disinfectants are applied . DOM from a conventional surface water treatment plant (WTP) in Northern New Jersey was isolated and fractionated using resin adsorption chromatography into six different fractions . These fractions are operationally categorized as hydrophobic acid, hydrophobic neutral, hydrophobic base, hydrophilic acid, hydrophilic neutral and hydrophilic base . The hydrophilic acid fraction was found to be the most abundant fraction in the source water . The hydrophilic neutral, hydrophilic acid and hydrophobic acid fractions had the highest removal efficiency through the WTP (about 65%) . The variation and removal effectiveness of each fraction along the WTP was studied . Seven-day chlorine DBP formation potential (FP) tests were performed on all DOM fractions through the WTP . For the source water studied, the hydrophilic acid fraction was found to be the most reactive precursor to the trihalomethane (THM) formation . The hydrophobic neutral fraction was found to be the fraction of concern with respect to the FP of haloacetic acids (HAAs) class of DBPs . The FP of each fraction's class of DBPs was found to be amenable for reduction along the treatment train, specifically by coagulation/sedimentation . The fractionated approach concept showed to be very beneficial in the study of DBP precursors and their effective removal by physical and chemical treatment. J Assoc Physicians India, 1999 Jul, 47(7), 690 - 3 Hypochromic anaemia in chronic renal failure--role of aluminium; Varma PP et al.; BACKGROUND: Anaemia is a cardinal feature of chronic renal failure and classically it is normochromic normocytic . Hypochromic anaemia in these patients is often attributed to iron deficiency . AIM: This study was aimed to find the contribution of aluminium in causation of anaemia in CRF patients . METHODS: Dialysis dependent patients of chronic renal failure with adequate dietary intake (> 1500 Cals/day) and no apparent source of blood loss were evaluated for type of anaemia . (During period of this study centre didn't have reverse osmosis plant for water treatment) . Evaluation included upper GI endoscopy, complete hemogram, serum proteins, serum iron, total iron binding capacity, and bone marrow iron status . For aluminium evaluation serum aluminium levels were done . RESULTS: Sixty-four patients were evaluated for type of anaemia . Mean age of patients was 41.19 years (15-76 years) with male:female ratio 2.3:1 . Classical normochromic picture was seen in 28.5% while rest had hypochromic picture . On bone marrow aspiration study two patients had zero iron stores while all others had normal/excessive iron stores . In 10 patients with hypochromic picture, mean serum aluminium levels were 170 micrograms/L (30-310 micrograms/L) . CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the high prevalence of hypochromic anaemia in patients with adequate dietary intake and aluminium overload in Indian CRF patients. J Hosp Infect, 2000 Apr, 44(4), 267 - 72 Investigation of an outbreak of Ralstonia pickettii in a paediatric hospital by RAPD; Maroye P et al.; In 1995, over a 5-day period, Ralstonia pickettii was isolated from six separate blood cultures from six paediatric patients in four different units of the Bordeaux paediatric hospital . The patients did not present fever or any other symptom of septicaemia . Epidemiological investigation cast suspicion on distilled water and 0.05% aqueous solutions of chlorhexidine used for topical disinfection as the source of R . pickettii . The organism was isolated from three of the seven distilled water specimens and from seven of the thirty-seven chlorhexidine specimens collected . Conventional biochemical tests showed no differences between isolates and antimicrobial agent susceptibility testing indicated that the six blood cultures contained the same strain of R . pickettii . This was confirmed by RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) analysis . The primers P3 (5'AGACGTCCAC3') and P15 (5'AATGGCGCAG3') from the kit 'OPH Operon' (Bioprobe Systems, Montreuil, France) were used . The chlorhexidine solutions and the distilled water used to prepare the solutions were contaminated with various strains of R . pickettii including the patient strain . The distilled water originating from the local pharmacy had been deionized on an ion-exchange resin . Circumstantial evidence points to this water treatment as the source of contamination . RAPD proved to be a discriminatory and reproducible technique in this context, but antibiotyping was also very helpful in detecting outbreak and was equally discriminatory