Forensic Sci Int, 2003 Nov 26, 137(2-3), 133 - 40 Torture and its sequel--a comparison between victims from six countries; Moisander PA et al.; The aim of the study was to compare torture victims from six different nations and analyse differences and similarities . From the files of the Centre for Trauma Victims in Stockholm (KTC), 160 patients were selected: 53 patients from Bangladesh, 21 from Iran, 16 from Peru, 24 from Syria, 25 from Turkey, and 21 from Uganda . The data was classified into: (i) information about social conditions and circumstances pertaining to alleged torture, (ii) type of trauma and torture methods, and (iii) acute and late sequel to torture . Descriptive and non-parametric statistics were used in the analyses . There was a strong male dominance in all but the Ugandan group where 43% were women . The majority in all but the Turkish group had college exams and/or university studies . Over 84% were members of a political organisation except in the Iranian and Syrian groups, where more than 40% had no political affiliation . The majority in all groups had travelled to Sweden alone to apply for asylum, but most refugees from Turkey, Iran, and Syria had close relatives already living in Sweden . The stories of circumstances and torture methods were similar within each group but differed a great deal between groups . Typically, in Bangladesh, Peru, and Turkey, the periods under arrest were short: from a few hours to 3 days . In Iran, Uganda, and Syria, the time in custody varied from several months to several years . A prison sentence preceded by trial was common only in Iran . Many patients, especially from Bangladesh and Turkey, had been arrested several times . Sensory deprivation by isolation and blindfolding was common in all countries except Uganda and Peru . Beating with fists, sticks, truncheons, etc . were reported in 100% in every group . In Bangladesh, police batons (lathi) were used more commonly than in any other group . Whipping with electric cords occurred frequently only in Iran and Syria . Rape was most often reported among the Ugandans . Genital torture was frequently alleged by patients from Bangladesh and Turkey . Suspension was common in all countries except for Uganda . Falaka, i.e . beating of the soles, and electric torture were common (>60%) in Bangladesh, Iran, Syria, and Turkey . Sharp injuries inflicted with knives and bayonets were often seen among the Bangladeshi and Ugandans . Burning injuries due to cigarettes were commonly seen only in patients from Bangladesh . Some methods were found to be almost exclusive for each country: "water treatment" (Bangladesh), the "tyre" (Syria), "telephono" and "submarino" (Peru) . The sequel of torture differed in some respects between groups . Fractures were more common among Iranians . Patients from Uganda and Bangladesh had numerous scars . Subjectively reported symptoms were most frequent among Bangladeshi, especially joint pain and ear, nose, and throat symptoms and least frequent among Ugandans . PTSD diagnosed on the basis of a psychiatric interview and psychological tests was found in 69-92% of patients in all groups . The study shows significant differences between countries regarding circumstances, torture methods, and sequel to torture . This knowledge is of value to forensic specialists documenting alleged torture and essential for fair and valid forensic statements. Environ Monit Assess, 2003 Nov, 89(1), 69 - 93 Trihalomethanes in drinking water of greater Québec region (Canada): occurrence, variations and modelling; Rodriguez MJ et al.; The levels of trihalomethanes (THMs)--the main species of by-product from water chlorination--were monitored in the distribution systems of the five major drinking water utilities of the greater area of Quebec City in order to investigate and model their occurrence on a spatial and seasonal basis . Data for THMs and other water quality and operational parameters associated with their formation were generated through a 16 month sampling program involving several sites representing variable water residence times, from the plant to the system extremity . The results demonstrate that the differences in measured THM levels between the five utilities are mainly due to the variable quality of raw waters, the type of water treatment process being used and the type and levels of applied disinfectant . Depending on the utility, average THM levels were from 1.3 to 2.5 times higher in the system extremities than in the water leaving the treatment plant . Also, average levels of THMs measured in summer at the distribution system extremities were, depending on the utility, from 2.5 to 5 times higher than the average levels measured in winter . The seasonal differences were found to be significantly greater than those observed by others in water utilities in the United States and Europe and are explained in large part by the considerable changes, over the year, in the quality and temperature of surface waters in Southern Quebec . For the live utilities under study, multivariate regression models were developed in order to predict spatial and seasonal variations of THMs . Both residual chlorine demand and temperature were found to be better, statistically, as predictors for THM occurrence . The usefulness of the developed models for routine and long term water quality management, as well as for assessment of human exposure to THMs, are also discussed. Environ Toxicol, 2003 Dec, 18(6), 361 - 7 Effects of riboflavin photoproducts on microbial activity during photosensitization of atrazine transformation; Glover H et al.; The contributions and effects of photolysis and microbial assemblages to 37.6 mg/L riboflavin-sensitized atrazine transformation were studied along with the toxicity of the intermediate mixtures . High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that riboflavin significantly enhanced the phototransformation of atrazine (10 mg/L) by reducing the parent compound concentration to less than 20% in 72 h . However, radiotracer measurements indicated atrazine was not mineralized to the same degree after 3 days of exposure . We hypothesize that riboflavin-sensitized transformation of atrazine is primarily photochemical; however, the biological component seems to promote overall atrazine degradation under solar irradiation . Based on the results of spread plate counting or 14C-glucose mineralization measurement, at a test concentration of 12.1 mg/L, lumichrome (a major riboflavin photoproduct) was found to be nontoxic to the test microbial assemblages in a reservoir water sample . Other riboflavin photoproducts and/or certain chemically reactive species were speculated to cause a cytotoxic effect . Overall, our data indicate that riboflavin may be an economical photosensitizing agent for atrazine degradation, but the apparent photoinduced cytotoxicity observed during transformation is of concern to the microbial assemblages that are needed for complete remediation . Further investigation into why the biotic component enhances riboflavin phototransformation of atrazine and the time frame of microbial recovery from riboflavin inhibition is needed . Such work may lead to cost-effective surface water treatment systems involving combined photochemical and microbial degradation processes . Water Res, 2003 Dec, 37(20), 4855 - 62 Purification of metal electroplating waste waters using zeolites; Alvarez-Ayuso E et al.; The sorption behaviour of natural (clinoptilolite) and synthetic (NaP1) zeolites has been studied with respect to Cr(III), Ni(II), Zn(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) in order to consider its application to purify metal finishing waste waters . The batch method has been employed using metal concentrations in solution ranged from 10 to 200 mg/l and solid/liquid ratios ranged from 2.5 to 10 g/l . The Langmuir model was found to describe well all sorption processes, allowing to establish metal sorption sequences from which the main retention mechanism involved for each metal has been inferred . Synthetic zeolite exhibited about 10 times greater sorption capacities (b(Cr)=0.838 mmol/g, b(Ni)=0.342 mmol/g, b(Zn)=0.499 mmol/g, b(Cu)=0.795 mmol/g, b(Cd)=0.452 mmol/g) than natural zeolite (b(Cr)=0.079 mmol/g, b(Ni)=0.034 mmol/g, b(Zn)=0.053 mmol/g, b(Cu)=0.093 mmol/g, b(Cd)=0.041 mmol/g), appearing, therefore, as most suitable to perform metal waste water purification processes . This mineral showed the same high sorption capacity values when used in the purification of metal electroplating waste waters. Water Environ Res, 2003 Sep-Oct, 75(5), 455 - 71 Flow and transport simulation models for prediction of chlorine contact tank flow-through curves; Wang H et al.; Turbulent flow, solute transport, and chemical and biological decay are some of the basic processes encountered in water treatment plants . This paper presents recent developments in the numerical simulation of turbulent flow and disinfection processes in disinfection contact tanks . Simulation runs have been conducted for various tank design alternatives and in different grid resolutions . The accuracy of simulated contact tank flow and the disinfection process depends largely on calculations of the hydrodynamic and solute transport characteristics in the tanks . A key factor of this is the accuracy of advection and shear stress term computations, which can be affected by the use of different hydrodynamic submodels and numerical schemes . The performance of a simulation model relies to a great extent on the right combination of such submodels and numerical schemes . In this study, a number of simulation models were tested against realistic tank configurations and measurements to evaluate the various combinations of turbulence models and difference schemes by analyzing predicted flow and solute transport patterns, as well as the corresponding flow-through curves . Models for disinfection tank simulations are recommended based on comparisons of simulation results with measurements . These models may also be applied to other water treatment processes such as wastewater treatment. Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Oct 1, 37(19), 4468 - 74 Selective coagulant recovery from water treatment plant residuals using Donnan membrane process; Prakash P et al.; Fouling of membrane surfaces by particulate matter and large organic molecules is relatively common for pressure-driven membrane processes, namely, reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and ultrafiltration (UF) . Donnan membrane process (DMP) or Donnan Dialysis is driven by electrochemical potential gradient across a semipermeable ion exchange membrane . Theoretically, DMP is not susceptible to fouling by fine particulates and/or large organic molecules . According to information available in the open literature, however, DMP has not been tried to treat slurry or sludge with relatively high concentration of suspended solids or large organic molecules . This study presents the salient results of an extensive investigation pertaining to selective alum recovery from water treatment residuals (WTR) using DMP . Water treatment plants use alum, Al2(SO4)3 x 14H2O, as a coagulant, alum being finally converted and discharged as insoluble aluminum hydroxide along with natural organic matters (NOM), suspended solids, and other trace impurities . One commercial cation exchange membrane, namely Nafion 117 from DuPont Chemical Co., was used in the study for treating WTR obtained from two different water treatment plants in Pennsylvania . A series of laboratory tests confirmed that over 70% of alum is easily recoverable, and recovered alum is essentially free of particulate matter, NOM, and other trace metals . Most importantly, after repeated usage in the presence of high concentration of NOM and suspended solids, there was no noticeable decline in aluminum flux through the membrane, i.e., membrane surface fouling was practically absent . The DMP process involves coupled transport of Al3+ and H+ across the cation exchange membrane, and intramembrane transport was the rate-limiting step . Experimentally determined aluminum-hydrogen interdiffusion coefficient (D(Al-H)) values within the membrane were quite high (approximately 10(-6) cm2/s) under representative conditions, thus confirming high alum recovery rate . DMP was also found equally effective in recovering Fe(III) based coagulants from WTR. Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Oct 1, 37(19), 4442 - 8 Occurrence and removal of estrogenic short-chain ethoxy nonylphenolic compounds and their halogenated derivatives during drinking water production; Petrovic M et al.; The elimination of nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol mono- and diethoxylates (NP1EO and NP2EO), nonylphenol carboxylates (NP1EC and NP2EC) and their brominated and chlorinated derivatives during drinking water treatment process in Sant Joan Despf waterworks in Barcelona was investigated utilizing a recently developed, highly sensitive LC-MS-MS method . The concentration of these potentially estrogenic compounds in raw water entering waterworks (taken from the Llobregat River, NE Spain) ranged from 8.3 to 22 microg/L, with NP2EC being the most abundant compound . Prechlorination reduced the concentration of short-chain ethoxy NPECs and NPEOs by about 25-35% and of NP by almost 90% . However, this reduction of concentrations was partially due to their transformation to halogenated derivatives . After prechlorination, halogenated nonylphenolic compounds represented approximately 13% of the total metabolite pool, of which 97% were in the form of brominated acidic metabolites . The efficiency of further treatment steps to eliminate nonylphenolic compounds (calculated for the sum of all short-chain ethoxy metabolites including halogenated derivatives) was as follows: settling and flocculation followed by rapid sand filtration (7%), ozonation (87%), GAC filtration (73%), and final disinfection with chlorine (43%), resulting in overall elimination ranging from 96 to 99% (mean 98% for four sampling dates) . A few of the nonylphenolic compounds (NP, NP1EC, and NP2EC) were also identified in drinking water; however, the residues detected were generally below 100 ng/L, with one exception for NP2EC in November 2001 when a concentration of 215 ng/L was detected. Mutat Res, 2003 Nov 10, 541(1-2), 103 - 13 Comparison of the mutagenic activity of XAD4 and blue rayon extracts of surface water and related drinking water samples; Kummrow F et al.; The combination of mutagenicity tests and selective extraction methodologies can be useful to indicate the possible classes of genotoxic organic contaminants in water samples . Treated and source water samples from two sites were analyzed: a river under the influence of an azo dye-processing plant discharge and a reservoir not directly impacted with industrial discharges, but contaminated with untreated domestic sewage . Organic extraction was performed in columns packed with XAD4 resin, that adsorbs a broad class of mutagenic compounds like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), arylamines, nitrocompounds, quinolines, antraquinones, etc., including the halogenated disinfection by-products; and with blue rayon that selectively adsorbs polycyclic planar structures . The organic extracts were tested for mutagenicity with the Salmonella assay using TA98 and TA100 strains and the potencies were compared . A protocol for cleaning the blue rayon fibers was developed and the efficiency of the reused fibers was analyzed with spiked samples . For the river water samples under the influence of the azo-type dye-processing plant, the mutagenicity was much higher for both blue rayon and XAD4 extracts when compared to the water from the reservoir not directly impacted with industrial discharges . For the drinking water samples, although both sites showed mutagenic responses with XAD4, only samples from the site under the influence of the industrial discharge showed mutagenic activity with the blue rayon extraction, suggesting the presence of polycyclic compounds in those samples . As expected, negative results were found with the blue rayon extracts of the drinking water collected from the reservoir not contaminated with industrial discharges . In this case, it appears that using the blue rayon to extract drinking water samples and comparing the results with the XAD resin extracts we were able to distinguish the mutagenicity caused by industrial contaminants from the halogenated disinfection by-products generated during water treatment. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4737 - 47 Synergistic inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum using ozone followed by free chlorine in natural water; Biswas K et al.; The synergistic effect of sequential exposure to ozone followed by free chlorine on inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts suspended in natural waters was studied in bench-scale batch reactors . Animal infectivity using neonatal CD-1 mice was used to measure oocyst inactivation . The synergistic effect measured in two alkaline (pH 8.1) natural waters was statistically significant but was considerably smaller than previously reported in buffered de-ionized water at pH 6.0 . Temperature, ozone primary treatment level, and water type did not have measurable impacts on the synergistic effect . Efforts to increase the synergistic effect by reducing the pH from 8 to 6 by acid addition were unsuccessful . In the two low alkalinity (pH 6.0) natural waters tested, the measured synergistic effect was greater than in the alkaline waters, but was still less than that measured previously in buffered de-ionized water . It was concluded that the synergistic effect reduction in the natural waters tested was due in part to alkalinity and in part to other unidentified water quality characteristics . Sequential treatment with ozone followed by free chlorine may only be a feasible strategy for achieving synergistic C . parvum inactivation credit for water treatment facilities with natural waters having a low pH (near 6.0). Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4730 - 6 Impact of hydrogen peroxide on nitrite formation during UV disinfection; Sharpless CM et al.; One concern with UV disinfection of water is the production of nitrite when polychromatic UV sources are utilized . Based on previous work, it was hypothesized that a small addition of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) may be useful in controlling nitrite during UV disinfection . However, it was found that H(2)O(2) addition (5 or 10mg/L) during polychromatic UV irradiation of drinking water at doses used for disinfection significantly increases the levels of nitrite produced relative to solutions without H(2)O(2) . Enhancement rates ranged from approximately 15% to 40% depending upon pH and H(2)O(2) concentration; the relative increase in the NO(2)(-) yield was greater at pH 6.5 than at pH 8.3 . The observed effects are tentatively ascribed to a combination of enhanced superoxide production and increased hydroxyl radical scavenging when H(2)O(2) is added . These results indicate that H(2)O(2) cannot be used to control nitrite production during UV disinfection and that enhanced nitrite formation will occur if H(2)O(2) is added during UV water treatment to achieve advanced oxidation of contaminants. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4693 - 702 Reduction of ClO2 demand by ClO2 oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration; Swietlik J et al.; The effective removal of soluble natural organic matter (NOM) during water treatment can significantly decrease the ClO(2) demand of processed water . This can be achieved through the oxidation and/or the removal of NOM . The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of ClO(2) oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration on the final ClO(2) demand of treated water . The study showed the ClO(2) demand to be strongly correlated with the abundance of high molecular fractions of NOM in treated water . As it was shown, this part of NOM was effectively removed during the GAC filtration . Moreover, the pre-treatment of water with ClO(2) considerably increased the total capacity of GAC filters for organic and inorganic (i.e . chlorites) oxidation by-products . Therefore, the oxidation of NOM molecules in conjunction with a very efficient GAC filtration can be successfully employed to control the abundance of high molecular NOM components, and thus the ClO(2) demand of finished water. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4631 - 6 Calcium accumulation on activated carbon deteriorates synthetic organic chemicals adsorption; Lee SH et al.; The accumulation of calcium on biological activated carbon (BAC) and their effects on adsorption of synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) were studied using BAC, which have been operated for 5 (BAC5.0) and 3.5 (BAC3.5) years in a pilot-scale water purification plant, and granular activated carbon (GAC) preloaded with fulvic acid and/or calcium . The major inorganic material accumulated on BAC was calcium . The amounts of calcium on BAC5.0 and BAC3.5 were 36.6 and 29.7 mg g(-1), respectively . Seventy-one percent of calcium existed as calcium carbonate in both BACs . BAC5.0 had higher amount of accumulated calcium than BAC3.5 even though both BACs have already exhausted for NOM in the influent in 1-year operation, suggesting that calcium carbonate gradually accumulated on BAC even after the 3.5 years of operation . The isotherms of GAC preloaded with fulvic acid and/or calcium clearly indicated that the calcium accumulation on GAC reduced adsorption capacity for simazine . The conclusion also confirmed by significant recovery of adsorption capacity of both BACs by acid-washing to remove accumulated calcium from BACs . The difference of adsorption capacity between BAC3.5 and BAC5.0 was caused not only by the difference of adsorbed NOM but also the difference in the amount of accumulated calcium. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4599 - 604 Rapid and economical indicator for evaluating arsenic removal with minimum aluminum residual during coagulation process; Kang M et al.; Detection of various types of contaminants in water treatment plant by sophisticated analytical methods such as inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry requires hours to days to provide the results . Because naturally occurring ultraviolet (UV) active compounds are commonly present in almost all source waters and can be rapidly monitored by UV absorbance at 260 nm (E260), the extent of correlation between the removal efficiency of E260 and the removal efficiency of As(V) with minimum soluble residual Al by coagulation process was investigated . Percentage removals for E260 were well correlated to those of As(V) . When sufficient alum or polyaluminum chloride (PACl) was added for 60-65% removal of E260, 90-95% removal of As(V) was achieved with minimum soluble residual Al regardless of the initial level of turbidity, E260, and As(V) . As E260 analysis is precisely available even by an unskilled plant operator in a few minutes, E260 removal efficiency appears to be the promising economical indicator for monitoring the effectiveness of the coagulation process for the removal of contaminants with minimum residual Al. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4553 - 60 Endotoxin inactivation by selected drinking water treatment oxidants; Anderson WB et al.; Exposure to endotoxins in treated drinking water can occur through ingestion, dermal abrasions, inhalation of water vapor, intravenous injection or during dialysis . While the risks associated with endotoxin ingestion and entry through dermal abrasions are not well quantified, adverse effects of intravenous injection and dialysis are well known and some studies indicate that inhalation of moisture-laden air may impact human health . This study quantifies the inactivation of endotoxin derived from Escherichia coli O55:B5 by three substances used either as disinfectants or oxidants in drinking water treatment: chlorine, monochloramine and potassium permanganate . Inactivation rates were found to be 1.4, 1.0 and 0.7 endotoxin units (EU)/mL h, for free chlorine, potassium permanganate and monochloramine, respectively . These rates are relatively slow given that contact times in drinking water distribution systems are typically less than 48 h . While small amounts of endotoxin may be removed by oxidation the observed removals are much less than those provided by physical removal processes . The significance of this finding is important for dialysis considerations but is as yet unclear with regard to inhalation, as the risk of inhaling sufficient quantities of endotoxin-containing aerosolized water droplets to adversely affect human health has not yet been adequately quantified. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 2003 Nov, 18(11), 2354 - 8 Methaemoglobinaemia and haemolysis associated with hydrogen peroxide in a paediatric haemodialysis centre: a warning note; Davidovits M et al.; BACKGROUND: Haemodialysis exposes patients to contaminants in the dialysate . The AAMI standards deal only with two disinfectants, chlorine and chloramine . We report an event of methaemoglobinaemia and haemolysis related to an unsuspected disinfection agent . METHODS: Nine children aged 3-17 years undergoing dialysis after reconstruction of our paediatric dialysis unit developed methaemoglobinaemia of 3.1-11%, with a mean reduction in haemoglobin levels of 11.9 +/- 5.9% (P < 0.001) . Air bubbles were noted in the bloodlines . The water treatment system (WTS) of the dialysis unit is disinfected when necessary by adding concentrated hydrogen peroxide (HP) to the storage tank and circulating it through the re-circulation loop with draining and subsequent flushings . Total chlorine analysis of the water is performed by DPD-iodide colorimetric method . RESULTS: Dialysis water testing yielded a high chloramine concentration in the storage tank and points- of-use stations (3.08 and 2.06 p.p.m., respectively) . However, this finding was not true for the tap water, and it also failed to explain the air bubbles in the dialysis tubing . The concentration of free chlorine was within the recommended range . Further investigation revealed that the WTS was disinfected by the service company during remodelling of the unit, without notification of the hospital staff . Since the DPD-iodide test is not specific, and in effect detects not only total chlorine, but all oxidants capable of oxidizing iodide, we assumed the culprit was residual HP that was inadequately flushed from the water system . CONCLUSIONS: HP used for disinfection of the WTS can pose a serious dialysis risk if not flushed out properly . Total chlorine analysis should be performed before every dialysis session, and positive results should prompt further work-up for other oxidants . The clinical staff must always be involved in decisions regarding any intervention in the dialysis water system. J Environ Qual, 2003 Sep-Oct, 32(5), 1857 - 64 Phosphorus retention mechanisms of a water treatment residual; Ippolito JA et al.; Water treatment residuals (WTRs) are a by-product of municipal drinking water treatment plants and can have the capacity to adsorb tremendous amounts of P . Understanding the WTR phosphorus adsorption process is important for discerning the mechanism and tenacity of P retention . We studied P adsorbing mechanism(s) of an aluminum-based {Al2(SO4)3 x 14H2O} WTR from Englewood, CO . In a laboratory study, we shook mixtures of P-loaded WTR for 1 to 211 d followed by solution pH analysis, and solution Ca, Al, and P analysis via inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy . After shaking periods, we also examined the solids fraction by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron microprobe analysis using wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (EMPA-WDS) . The shaking results indicated an increase in pH from 7.2 to 8.2, an increase in desorbed Ca and Al concentrations, and a decrease in desorbed P concentration . The pH and desorbed Ca concentration increases suggested that CaCO3 controlled Ca solubility . Increased desorbed Al concentration may have been due to Al(OH)4 formation . Decreased P content, in conjunction with the pH increase, was consistent with calcium phosphate formation or precipitation . The system appeared to be undersaturated with respect to dicalcium phosphate (DCP; CaHPO4) and supersaturated with respect to octacalcium phosphate {OCP; Ca4H(PO4)3 x 2.5H2O} . The Ca and Al increases, as well as OCP formation, were supported by MINTEQA2 modeling . The XRD and EMPA-WDS results for all shaking times, however, suggested surface P chemisorption as an amorphous Al-P mineral phase. J Environ Qual, 2003 Sep-Oct, 32(5), 1658 - 68 Evaluation of water treatment sludge for ameliorating acid mine waste; Van Rensburg L et al.; This study investigated the liming effect of water treatment sludge on acid mine spoils . The study was conducted with sludge from a water purification plant along the Vaal River catchments in South Africa . The optimum application rate for liming acid spoils and the speed and depth with which the sludge reacted with the mine waste were investigated . Chemical analysis indicated that the sludge is suitable as a liming agent because of its alkaline pH (8.08), high bicarbonate concentration (183.03 mg L(-1)), and low salinity (electrical conductivity = 76 mS m(-1)) . The high cation exchange capacity of 15.47 cmol(c) kg(-1) and elevated nitrate concentration (73.16 mg L(-1)) also increase its value as an ameliorative material . The soluble concentrations for manganese, aluminum, lead, and selenium were high at a pH of 5 although only selenium (0.83 mg L(-1)) warranted some concern . According to experimental results, the application of 10 Mg ha(-1) of sludge to acid gold tailings increased the leach water pH from 4.5 to more than 7.5 and also increased the medium pH from 2.4 to 7.5 . The addition of sludge further reduced the solubility of iron, manganese, copper, and zinc in the ameliorated gold tailings, but increased the electrical conductivity . The liming tempo was highest in the coal discard profile that had a coarse particle size distribution and took the longest to move through the gold tailings that had a fine particle size distribution . Results from this study indicate that the water treatment sludge investigated is suitable as a liming agent for rehabilitation of acid mine waste. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu, 2003 Jul, 32(4), 377 - 80 {Study on the effect of NaFeEDTA on preventing lead poisoning in rats and its impact on zinc, copper}; Wang J et al.; In order to explore the effect of sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetate (NaFeEDTA) on preventing rats from lead poisoning and reducing the lead toxicity, and at the same time to explore its impact on zinc and copper, sixty Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups including blank control group, model control group, positive control group and three different level NaFeEDTA (high, middle and low) groups . With the exception of the blank control group, which only received double distilled water treatment throughout the experiment, all the other rats were continuously treated with lead solution . At the same time, with the exception of the blank and model control groups, the other four groups were treated with acidi dimercaptosuccinici (DMSA), high, middle and low level NaFeEDTA solutions respectively . At the end of the study, several indicators were determined . The results showed that the hemoglobin levels in the three different level NaFeEDTA groups were significantly higher than those of the other four groups and at the same time the lead levels in blood and organs were lower than those of model group significantly . There were significant reverse correlations between iron supplement and the lead levels in liver, kidney and tibia among the three different level NaFeEDTA groups, and the correlation coefficients were -0.4432, -0.6134 and -0.3878 respectively . There were no significant differences in zinc levels and copper levels between the three level NaFeEDTA groups and the negative control group except the brain zinc levels in the middle and high level NaFeEDTA groups were lower and the kidney copper level in the low level NaFeEDTA group was higher than those of the model control group . It is concluded that the NaFeEDTA can effectively improve hemoglobin level, prevent rats from lead poisoning and reduce the lead toxicity . At the same time, NaFeEDTA does not have significant influence on zinc and copper levels in rats. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(4), 139 - 46 Impacts of separate rejection water treatment on the overall plant performance; Wett B et al.; A separate rejection water treatment appears as a high-tech unit process which might be recommendable only for specific cases of an upgrading of an existing wastewater treatment plant . It is not the issue of this paper to consider a specific separate treatment process itself but to investigate the influence of such a process on the overall plant performance . A plant-wide model has been applied as an innovative tool to evaluate effects of the implemented sidestream strategy on the mainstream treatment . The model has been developed in the SIMBA environment and combines acknowledged mathematical descriptions of the activated sludge process (ASM1) and the anaerobic mesophilic digestion (Siegrist model) . The model's calibration and validation was based on data from 5 years of operating experience of a full-scale rejection water treatment . The impact on the total N-elimination efficiency is demonstrated by detailed nitrogen mass flow schemes including the interactions between the wastewater and the sludge lane . Additionally limiting conditions due to dynamic N-return loads are displayed by the model's state variables. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003, 38(10), 2359 - 68 Development of floating plastic media filtration system for water treatment and wastewater reuse; Chiemchaisri C et al.; Floating plastic media coupled with sand filtration system was applied for treating surface water and secondary effluent from municipal sewage treatment plant . The system employed floating plastic media for the removal of suspended solids in surface water and precipitated phosphorus from secondary effluent of sewage treatment plant . Sand filtration was then used to remove further the suspended solids . For the purposes of wastewater reuse, a zeolite layer was used instead of sand filter to absorb ammonium nitrogen . Application of system for surface water treatment suggested appropriate filtration rate of 5 m3/m2 h . Polyaluminum chloride was found to be the best coagulant with an appropriate plastic and sand bed depth of 40 cm . The system could produce average effluent turbidity and suspended solids of 0.71 NTU and 0.94 mg/L respectively . Average turbidity and suspended solids removal efficiencies were 96.26% and 95.48% with low headloss development of 40.4 cm at the end of 6 h operation period . When applying 1.50 m . floating plastic media bed for the treatment of synthetic raw water, short and long-term turbidity removal efficiencies were 96.79-97.72% and 81.81-94.61% for raw water containing turbidity of 20 and 40 NTU . It could produce the effluent with turbidity less than 5NTU while having less than 1.0 m . headloss . The system was also applied for the secondary effluent treatment . An optimum filtration rate of 5 m3/m2 h was obtained when using plastic and sand bed depth of 60 and 20cm under direct filtration mode . Average turbidity removal was 60.3% and 59.6% after 6 and 48 h of operation . It was also found that 1 m3/m2 h filtration rate and 50:30 cm of plastic:zeolite bed could be used to achieve both ammonium nitrogen and phosphate removal . Suspended solids, turbidity, BOD5, NH4+, and PO4(3-) removal efficiencies were 91.9, 94.6, 95.4, 97.3, and 99.5% respectively after 24 h . As a result, the effluent from the system had average NH4+ and PO4(3-) of 0.5 mg N/L and 0.02 mg P/L. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 135 - 41 Nitrite accumulation in the treatment of wastewaters with high ammonia concentration; Yang W et al.; Different operational parameters of the nitritation process were investigated in both jar tests and pilot scale Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs) . In the laboratory study, 100-1,200 mg N l(-1) of ammonia was used . The pH and temperature were varied . Batch experiments were done on municipal sludge, pectin industrial sludge and sludge from a reject water treatment unit . Ammonia oxidation was observed with relative nitrite accumulations from 2% to 100% and ammonia oxidation rates from 0.01 to 0.58 g N g VSS(-1) d(-1) . The nitritation process and relative nitrite accumulation were highly affected by pH, temperature and the sludge type . pH 8.0-8.5 and temperature 30 degrees C were found favourable for the nitritation . Pilot SBR systems for treating reject water achieved 100% of nitrite accumulation under the operational conditions of pH 7.5-8.0, temperature 30 degrees C and dissolved oxygen (DO) 1.0 mg 1(-1) . Six months of operation revealed that pH regulations were essential to avoid the inhibitions by either free ammonia or nitrous acid . At an unionized ammonia concentration of approximately 20 mg NH3-N l(-1), half of the normal nitritation ability still remained . Total inhibition occurred when the concentration of nitrous acid reached 3.0 mg HNO2-N l(-1) . However, both types of inhibitions were reversible in the SBR with a proper operation control . Stable and controllable nitritation could be achieved in pilot scale. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 97 - 104 Enteric virions and microbial biofilms--a secondary source of public health concern? Storey MV, Ashbolt NJ. Through their many sorption sites, microbial biofilms can accumulate both organic and inorganic particulate and colloidal material from bulk water environments . An application of such first principles to the ecology of "biocolloidal" enteric virions would suggest that they too may be concentrated by biofilms in a similar way . Though previous studies have isolated human gastrointestinal (enteric) virions from microbial biofilms, the exact human health significance of this has been neither fully investigated nor completely understood . Through an assessment of the location, accumulation and persistence of model enteric virion (phiX174, MS2 and B40-8 bacteriophages as well as 20 nm fluorescent latex microspheres) within biofilms, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether the interaction of enteric virions with distribution pipe biofilms could provide a secondary source of public health concern to consumers . Model enteric virions were found to be incorporated into biofilms at concentrations representing 1% of those present in the adjacent bulk water environment . A sub-population (0.01%) of these persisted throughout an experimental period of 30 days, inferring their potential to accumulate over time . Furthermore, model enteric virions were partitioned into bacterial microcolonies, environments where biofilm bacteria can persist and re-grow, even in the presence of "acceptable" levels of disinfection . A risk model for enteric virion accumulation and release from distribution pipe biofilms suggested that associated risks may exceed USEPA benchmark values . These findings could have wide-reaching implications in water treatment and distribution strategies, and necessitate a re-appraisal of current water guideline values. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 65 - 72 Removal of trichloroethylene from waste gases via the peroxone process; Van Craeynest K et al.; In dealing with chlorinated organic compounds in waste gases, traditional treatment techniques show some severe shortcomings . Thermal oxidation may lead to the formation of dioxins, active carbon adsorption does not degrade the pollutants and biotechnological treatment is difficult since microorganisms do not always possess efficient degradation pathways for these compounds . These drawbacks explain the growing interest of the waste gas treatment sector for Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) which were initially developed as water treatment techniques . AOPs generate highly reactive hydroxyl radicals that efficiently oxidise organic pollutants . In the peroxone process, this is done by a combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide . In this work, the peroxone process is applied in an oxidative scrubber for the removal of trichloroethylene (TCE) . Rapid oxidation of absorbed TCE in the liquid phase enhances TCE absorption Practically, a gas stream contaminated with TCE is mixed with an ozone loaded gas stream . The mixture is led through a bubble column that is fed with a buffered hydrogen peroxide solution . The effect of different process parameters (flow rates, buffer concentration, pH, hydrogen peroxide/ozone dosage ratio, TCE dosage) on TCE removal was investigated . Depending on the operating conditions, removal efficiencies up to 98% could be attained. Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(18), 4425 - 32 The effect of free chlorine on Burkholderia pseudomallei in potable water; Howard K et al.; Chlorine is widely used in public water supplies to provide a disinfection barrier . The effect of chlorine disinfection on the water-borne pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei was assessed using multiple techniques . After exposure to chlorine viable bacteria were undetectable by conventional plate count techniques; however, persistence of B . pseudomallei was verified by flow cytometry and bacteria were recoverable following a simple one-step broth procedure . The minimum residual chlorine concentration and contact time as prescribed by potable water providers in Australia was insufficient to reduce a B . pseudomallei population by more than 2 log(10) . Chlorine had a bacteriostatic effect only on B . pseudomallei; viable bacteria were recovered from water containing up to 1000 ppm free chlorine . This finding has practical implications for water treatment in regions where B . pseudomallei is endemic . Future work to assess the effect of alternative water disinfection processes either singly or in sequence is necessary. Indian J Environ Health, 2002 Jan, 44(1), 12 - 8 Performance evaluation of water treatment plants based on microfilter technology for rural water supply; Reddy RC et al.; Panchayat Raj Engineering Department (PRED), Government of Andhra Pradesh installed package water treatment plants on a trial basis, in some villages in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh . These plants with a design capacity of 6000-12000 lph were supplied and erected by a firm in Hyderabad . These plants consist of three stage treatment comprising of pulverized quartz filter bed, activated carbon bed and micro filter unit followed by disinfection . At the request of PRED, comprehensive studies were carried on individual plants which includes a detailed appraisal of the performance of the individual components of the plant, infrastructure at the village level for routine O&M of the plants as also views of the community regarding their acceptability of the system . This paper presents the findings and conclusions of the performance evaluation study. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2003 Apr, 23(2), 246 - 8 {Study on preparation of lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanometer thin film materials and its photocatalytic activity}; Zheng HL et al.; In this paper, lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanometer film materials coated on glass were prepared in Ti(OBu)4 precursor solutions by sol-gel processing . Transmittance and photocatalytic activity were respectively investigated and tested for these nanometer thin films prepared with different amount of lanthanum (La), different amount of polyethylene glycol (PEG), and different coating layer times . Some reactive mechanisms were also discussed . For one layer La-addition had little effect on the film transmissivity; but the photocatalytic activity was significantly improved due to La-addition . With increasing PEG, the transmittance of the film decreased for one layer film; but its photocatalytic activity did not rise . Increasing layer number did not affect the transmissivity of multilayer film . After coating two times, increasing layer number did not significantly improve the photocatalytic activity . The highest photocatalytic activity and best transmissivity were obtained for two layer TiO2 film when the dosage of lanthanum was 0.5 g and the dosage of polyethylene was 0.2 g in the precursor solutions . These materials will probably be used in the protection of environment, waste water treatment, and air purification. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2000 Jun, 20(3), 379 - 80 {Determination of trace Pb and Cd in water treatment reagent by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry}; Zheng E et al.; The optimum conditions for the determination of trace Pb and Cd in water treatment reagent by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry were studied in detail in this paper . The results show that the long and tedious pretreatment process was cut down by calibrating background with D2 lamp and NH4H2PO4 as matrix modifier . The determination limits were 0.65 microgram.L-1 and 0.12 microgram.L-1 for (Pb and Cd) and linear ranges were 0-50 micrograms.L-1, 0-20 micrograms.L-1 for Pb and Cd, respectively . Rate of recovery was 90%-110% . This method is accurate, quick and simple, and can be used successfully to determine actual samples. Int J Biol Macromol, 2003 Sep, 32(3-5), 121 - 7 DNA aqueous solution used for dialytical removal and enrichment of dioxin derivatives; Liu XD et al.; In the present study, a dialytic method that uses a DNA aqueous solution to remove and enrich dioxins from polluted water was proposed . Circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescent spectra indicated that dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD), dibenzofuran (DF) and biphenyl (BP), which are dioxin derivatives, form complexes with DNA . Their experimental dialytic sorption coefficients were measured by quantifying the concentrations of DD, DF, and BP in aqueous solutions before and after dialysis of the DNA solution, and the values were 2.1x10(5), 1.3x10(5), and 1.5x10(7), respectively . As a simulated water treatment model, DNA solution was dialyzed in an aqueous mixture of DD, DF, and BP for 96h, the HPLC studies showed that the dioxin derivatives have been concentrated in the DNA solution about 200 times . The dialyzed DNA solution was reusable by an extraction with hexane. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 2003 Aug, 18 Suppl 7, vii21 - 5; discussion vii56 The quality of dialysis water; Pontoriero G et al.; INTRODUCTION: Every week, haemodialysis patients are exposed to approximately 400 l of water used for the production of dialysis fluids which, albeit with the interposition of a semi-permeable artificial membrane, come into direct contact with the bloodstream . It is therefore clearly important to know and monitor the chemical and microbiological purity of dialysis water . METHODS: In this review, we analyse the sources of chemical and microbiological water contamination, and the problems involved in water purification systems and modalities . We also analyse the compliance of dialysis units with the microbiological standards established by the most widely accepted guidelines relating to the quality of dialysis fluids . RESULTS: The risk of chemical contamination is due mainly to the primary pollution of municipal water, whereas the most important microbiological problem is the control of bacterial growth in the water treatment and distribution system . Dialysis water treatment implies various levels of pre-treatment, a final purification module (which, in many cases, is reverse osmosis: RO) and a hydraulic circuit for the distribution of the purified water . RO-based treatment systems produce water of optimal chemical and microbial quality, and so dialysis units need to concentrate on maintaining this quality level in the long term by means of effective maintenance and disinfection strategies . The most widely accepted standards for water purity are those recommended by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation and the European Pharmacopea, which respectively allow bacterial growth of <200 and <100 c.f.u./ml, and an endotoxin concentration of <2 and <0.25 IU/ml . However, a number of multicentre studies have reported that 7-35% of water samples have bacterial growth of >200 c.f.u./ml, and up to 44% have endotoxin levels of >5 IU/ml . CONCLUSIONS: The results of multicentre studies indicate that the microbial quality of dialysis fluids is still a too often neglected problem, particularly as there is evidence of a possible relationship between dialysis fluid contamination and long-term morbidity . The time has now come to take advantage of innovations in water treatment processes and improvements in dialysis machines in order to modify clinical practices and start improvement processes aimed at decreasing the risk of microbial contamination to the minimum, as it has already been successfully done in the case of chemical contamination. Environ Monit Assess, 2003 Sep, 87(3), 293 - 309 Hydrological influences on the water quality trends in Tamiraparani Basin, South India; Ravichandran S; Water quality variables--Turbidity, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Chlorides and Total Hardness (TH) were monitored at a downstream location in the Tamiraparani River during 1978-1992 . The observations were made at weekly intervals in a water treatment and supply plant using standard methods . Graphical and statistical analyses were used for data exploration, trend detection and assessment . Box-Whisker plots of annual and seasonal changes in variables indicated apparent trends being present in the data and their response to the seasonal influence of the monsoon rainfall . Further, the examination of the median values of the variables indicated that changes in the direction of trend occurred during 1985-1986, especially in pH, EC and TH . The statistical analyses were done using non-parametric methods, the ANCOVA on rank transformed data and the Seasonal Man-Kendall test . The presence of monotonic trend in all the water quality variables was confirmed, however, with independent direction of change . The trend line was fitted by the method of least squares . The estimated values indicated significant increases in EC (28 microS cm(-1)) while significant decreases were observed in turbidity (90 NTU), pH (0.78), and total hardness (23 ppm) in a span of 15 years . The changes induced in river flow by the addition of a stabilizing reservoir, the influence of seasonal and spatial pattern of monsoon rainfall across the river basin and the increased agriculture appear causative factors for the water quality trends seen in the Tamiraparani River system. Am J Public Health, 2003 Sep, 93(9), 1527 - 33 Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff; Gaffield SJ et al.; OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the scale of the public health risk from stormwater runoff caused by urbanization . METHODS: We compiled turbidity data for municipal treated drinking water as an indication of potential risk in selected US cities and compared estimated costs of waterborne disease and preventive measures . RESULTS: Turbidity levels in other US cities were similar to those linked to illnesses in Milwaukee, Wis, and Philadelphia, Pa . The estimated annual cost of waterborne illness is comparable to the long-term capital investment needed for improved drinking water treatment and stormwater management . CONCLUSIONS: Although additional data on cost and effectiveness are needed, stormwater management to minimize runoff and associated pollution appears to make sense for protecting public health at the least cost. Water Res, 2003 Oct, 37(17), 4275 - 83 Enhancing Fenton oxidation of TNT and RDX through pretreatment with zero-valent iron; Oh SY et al.; The effect of reductive treatment with elemental iron on the rate and extent of TOC removal by Fenton oxidation was studied for the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) using a completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) . The results support the hypothesis that TNT and RDX are reduced with elemental iron to products that are oxidized more rapidly and completely by Fenton's reagent . Iron pretreatment enhanced the extent of total organic carbon (TOC) removal by approximately 20% and 60% for TNT and RDX, respectively . Complete TOC removal was achieved for TNT and RDX solutions with iron pretreatment under optimal conditions . On the other hand, without iron pretreatment, complete TOC removal of TNT and RDX solutions was not achieved even with much higher H(2)O(2) and Fe(2+) concentrations . Nitrogen was recovered as NH(4)(+) and NO(3)(-) when Fe(0)-treated TNT and RDX solutions were subjected to Fenton oxidation . The bench-scale iron treatment-Fenton oxidation integrated system showed more than 95% TOC removal for TNT and RDX solutions under optimal conditions . These results suggest that the reduction products of TNT and RDX are more rapidly and completely degraded by Fenton oxidation and that a sequential iron treatment-Fenton oxidation process may be a viable technology for pink water treatment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2003 Aug, 24(8), 575 - 9 A 17-month evaluation of a chlorine dioxide water treatment system to control Legionella species in a hospital water supply; Srinivasan A et al.; OBJECTIVE: To assess the safety and efficacy of a chlorine dioxide water treatment system in controlling Legionella in a hospital water supply . DESIGN: For 17 months following installation of the system, we performed regular water cultures throughout the building, assessed chlorine dioxide and chlorite levels, and monitored metal corrosion . RESULTS: Sites that grew Legionella species decreased from 41% at baseline to 4% (P = .001) . L . anisa was the only species recovered and it was found in samples of both hot and cold water . Levels of chlorine dioxide and chlorite were below Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits for these chemicals in potable water . Further, enhanced carbon filtration effectively removed the chemicals, even at chlorine dioxide levels of more than twice what was used to treat the water . After 9 months, corrosion of copper test strips exposed to the chlorine dioxide was not higher than that of control strips . During the evaluation period, there were no cases of nosocomial Legionella in the building with the system, whereas there was one case in another building . CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that operation of a chlorine dioxide system effectively removed Legionella species from a hospital water supply . Furthermore, we found that the system was safe, as levels of chlorine dioxide and chlorite were below EPA limits . The system did not appear to cause increased corrosion of copper pipes . Our results indicate that chlorine dioxide may hold promise as a solution to the problem of Legionella contamination of hospital water supplies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2003 Aug, 24(8), 569 - 74 Risk of hospital-acquired legionnaires' disease in cities using monochloramine versus other water disinfectants; Heffelfinger JD et al.; OBJECTIVE: To measure the association between the disinfection of municipal drinking water with monochloramine and the occurrence of hospital-acquired legionnaires' disease (LD) . SETTING: One hundred sixty-six U.S . hospitals . DESIGN: Survey of 459 members of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) for hospital features; endemic- and outbreak-related, hospital-acquired LD; the source of the hospital water supply; and the methods of disinfection used by the hospitals and municipal water treatment plants . RESULTS: SHEA members representing 166 (36%) of 459 hospitals responded; 33 (20%) reported one or more episodes of hospital-acquired LD during the period from 1994 to 1998 and 23 (14%) reported an outbreak of hospital-acquired LD during the period from 1989 to 1998 . Hospitals with an occurrence of hospital-acquired LD had a higher census (median, 319 vs 221; P = .03), more acute care beds (median, 500 vs 376; P = .04), and more intensive care unit beds (median, 42 vs 24; P = .009) than did other hospitals . They were also more likely to have a transplant service (74% vs 42%; P = .001) and to perform surveillance for hospital-acquired disease (92% vs 61%; P = .001) . After adjustment for the presence of a transplant program and surveillance for legionnaires' disease, hospitals supplied with drinking water disinfected with monochloramine by municipal plants were less likely to have sporadic cases or outbreaks of hospital-acquired LD (odds ratio, 0.20; 95% confidence interval, 0.07 to 0.56) than were other hospitals . CONCLUSION: Water disinfection with monochloramine by municipal water treatment plants significantly reduces the risk of hospital-acquired LD. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 Sep, 38(9), 1959 - 70 Estimation of Giardia Ct values at high pH for the Surface Water Treatment Rule; Sivaganesan M et al.; The U.S . Environmental Protection Agency currently recommends Ct (disinfectant concentration multiplied by the exposure time) values to achieve required levels of inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts by different disinfectants including free chlorine . Current guidance covers inactivation levels in the pH range between 6 and 9 . Subsequent to the publication of these criteria, studies on the inactivation kinetics of Giardia cysts by chlorine have been performed at pH levels greater than 9 . It has been shown that the chlorine inactivation process for Giardia cysts is pH dependent . The objective of this paper is to extend the current Ct values for higher pH levels . The Chick-Watson first order kinetics model was used to develop Ct values for pH levels from 6 to 11.5 . A formula is provided to calculate a 100(1 - alpha)% upper confidence bound for these values. Rev Saude Publica, 2003 Aug, 37(4), 510 - 4 Epub 2003 Aug 20. {Drinking water in rural farms as a risk factor to human health}; do Amaral LA et al.; OBJECTIVE: To assess the sanitary quality of drinking water in rural farms through counts of microbiological indicators . METHODS: A total of 180 drinking water samples from sources, reservoirs and water from site of consumption were collected in 30 rural farms located in the northeast region of the sate of Sao Paulo . The most probable number of total coliforms, Escherichia coli and mesophilic microorganisms were determined . Also, the presence of protection measures for water supplies wase verified . RESULTS: The study results showed that 90.0% of drinking water samples from sources, 90.0% from reservoirs, and 96.7% from sites of consumption, collected during the rainy season, and 83.3%, 96.7% and 90.0% of samples collected in dry season were below the quality control standards for drinking water . CONCLUSIONS: Drinking water in rural farms was considered a potential human health threat . Preventive measures for protecting water sources and water treatment are necessary to significantly reduce the occurrence of waterborne diseases. Ultrason Sonochem, 2003 Oct, 10(6), 319 - 23 Potential uses of ultrasound in the biological decontamination of water; Mason TJ et al.; In the past there was a prevailing feeling in industry that power ultrasound would be too expensive to use for water treatment on an industrial scale . This was based on calculations involving the direct scale up of power consumption in small-scale (generally batch) laboratory experiments . In recent times this attitude has changed somewhat as a result of the installation of a number of ultrasonic devices in operational water or sewage treatment plants . In our laboratories we have investigated the decontamination of water under the influence of ultrasound alone and in conjunction with other treatments . The results, particularly when applied to flowing systems, indicate a real future for sonochemistry in water treatment. Reprod Fertil Dev, 2003, 15(4), 207 - 14 Effects of chronic prenatal ethanol exposure on NMDA receptor number and affinity for {(3)H}MK-801 in the cerebral cortex of the young postnatal and adult guinea-pig; Puri RK et al.; The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that chronic prenatal ethanol exposure (CPEE) produces changes in the number and/or affinity of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the cerebral cortex that are developmental-age-dependent . Timed, pregnant Dunkin-Hartley-strain guinea-pigs received oral intubation of one of the following regimens, given daily as two equally divided doses 2 h apart, from gestational day (GD) 2 to GD 67 (term, ~GD 68): (i) 4 g ethanol kg(-1) maternal bodyweight; (ii) isocaloric sucrose with pair feeding; or (iii) water . Maternal blood ethanol concentration was measured on GD 57 or 58 at 1 h after the daily dose, and was 51.1 +/- 8.5 mM (235 +/- 39 mg dL(-1); n = 8) . At postnatal day (PD) 11 (pre-weaning) and PD 61 (adulthood), body, brain and cerebral cortical weights of the offspring were measured . The number of NMDA receptors and their affinity for {(3)H}MK-801 were measured in a crude cerebral cortical membrane preparation using saturation isotherm analysis to determine the B(max) and K(D) . Chronic prenatal ethanol exposure decreased offspring brain and cerebral cortical weights at PD 11 and PD 61 . At PD 11, there was no CPEE-induced change of {(3)H}MK-801 binding characteristics in the cerebral cortex . At PD 61, both B(max) and K(D) for {(3)H}MK-801 binding to cerebral cortical NMDA receptors were decreased by CPEE compared with the isocaloric sucrose/pair-fed and water treatment groups . Loss of cerebral cortical NMDA receptors and increased affinity of the remaining receptors for {(3)H}MK-801 in the adult guinea-pig, compared with no change in the number or affinity of these receptors in the young postnatal offspring, demonstrated that the effects of CPEE on these ionotropic glutamate receptors are developmental-age-dependent. Hereditas, 2003, 138(2), 148 - 53 Detachment analysis of the translocated W chromosome shows that the female-specific randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker, female-218, is derived from the second chromosome fragment region of the translocated W chromosome of the sex-limited p(B) silkworm (Bombyx mori ) strain; Yokoyama T et al.; The sex chromosomes of the silkworm, Bombyx mori, are designated ZW for the female and ZZ for the male . We previously characterized a female-specific randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker, designated Female-218, from the translocation-bearing W chromosomes . These W chromosomes contain a region of the second chromosome, which carries visible larval markers of the p loci . We used strain TWPB in which female larvae have black skin due to the p(B) gene (T(W;2)p(B), +p/+p) while male larvae have whitish skin (+p/+p) . To determine whether the Female-218 RAPD marker is derived from the "W region" or a "second chromosome fragment", we induced a detachment of the translocated W chromosome, T(W;2)p(B), by treating the eggs with hot water at an early developmental stage . After hot water treatment, we obtained 27 white female larvae out of 4850 female larvae . The Female-218 RAPD marker was not amplified in 26 out of 27 white female larvae, and was amplified from one white female larva . Moreover, we obtained 11 black male larvae out of 5377 male larvae . Eight out of 11 black male larvae became adult moths, and the Female-218 RAPD marker was amplified from all eight male moths . Examination of the genetic relationship between the Female-218 RAPD marker and the second chromosome fragment of the translocated W chromosome strongly indicates that the Female-218 RAPD marker is amplified from the region of second chromosome fragment of the T(W;2)p(B) chromosome. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 Jul, 38(7), 1259 - 68 Removal of Encephalitozoon intestinalis, calicivirus, and coliphages by conventional drinking water treatment; Gerba CP et al.; The removal of the Microsporidia, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, feline calicivirus and coliphages MS-2, PRD-1, and Fr were evaluated during conventional drinking water treatment in a pilot plant . The treatment consisted of coagulation, sedimentation, and mixed media filtration . Fr coliphage was removed the most (3.21 log), followed by feline calicivirus (3.05 log), E . coli (2.67 log), E . intestinalis (2.47 log), MS-2 (2.51 log) . and PRD-1 (1.85 log) . With the exception of PRD-1 the greatest removal of the viruses occurred during the flocculation step of the water treatment process. Environ Technol, 2003 Jul, 24(7), 897 - 902 A new technology for the treatment of mercury contaminated water and soils; Zhuang JM et al.; A new technology has been developed for the treatment of contaminated water and soils with lignin derivatives . It has been demonstrated that this technology can be used in the process of removal of high levels of mercury from water, and in the immobilization of leachable mercury in contaminated soils . Lignin derivatives contain an abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups such as phenolic, carboxyl, sulfonyl, alcoholic and enolic structures, which will form lignin-metal macromolecular complexes with high stability through ionic and coordinate covalent bonding . This feature is the basis for the application of lignin derivatives in the removal of metal contaminants from water and in the immobilization of leachable metal in soils or sediments . Tests have confirmed that lignin derivatives are capable of combining with a variety of metal ions including chromium, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and aluminum . In the new water treatment process, lignin derivatives are dissolved in mercury contaminated water to complex mercury in an exceptionally stable form of a lignin-mercury colloid . The lignin-mercury colloid is then coagulated through the addition of a flocculating agent such as ferric chloride . Under optimized conditions, a dean effluent is produced with a residual mercury level of less than 1 microg l(-1), together with a ferric sludge that is not leachable by TCLP, EPA Method 1311 . In the new soil stabilization process, a new solid adsorbent of ferric-lignin is blended with mercury contaminated soil . This solid adsorbent can stabilize the soil by complexing with mercury and, thereby, greatly reduce the TCLP mercury of soil. Environ Technol, 2003 Jul, 24(7), 867 - 76 Flotation techniques for oily water treatment; Melo MV et al.; The aim of this work is to develop alternative techniques for the treatment of waters heavily contaminated by oil . Furthermore, the treatment system should achieve high removal efficiencies even under unfavorable conditions, when oil is finely dispersed in the water phase and oil droplet sizes range from 5-30 mm and concentrations are between 100 and 300 mg l(-1) . The first experiments were carried out in an induced air flotation system where a flotation column performance was evaluated in batch and continuous operation . The second system investigated in this work focused on the association of centrifugal separation in a hydrocyclone and the flotation operation . The considered system is characterized by the association of these two processes, resulting the set-up in a compact unit (centrifugal flotation system) . The bubbles generation and the droplet-bubble contact are performed through a gas-liquid ejector, while the separation of the phase rich in oil (froth phase) is promoted by a hydrocyclone . In both systems, it was possible to reduce the chemical demand of oxygen by more than 85% and the oil concentration of an emulsion containing droplets with sizes between 10 and 20 mm, using Polyacrilamide as destabilizing agent. Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2003 May, 24(3), 40 - 4 {Particle entrapment mechanism in deep bed filtration}; Guo J et al.; Theoretical analysis was carried out in this paper to study the interaction in the bed filtration process, and the physico-chemical forces between the filter media and suspended particles in water were presented . Pilot study of the micro-flocculation deep bed filtration was carried out in the No . 9 Potable Water Treatment Plant of Beijing, the interception of particles of 1-10 microns diameter in the 500 cm deep filter bed was analyzed, and the head loss variation during 65 h was monitored . The shear force of 1-10 microns diameter-particle under 24 m/h filtration velocity was calculated . The theoretical physico-chemical forces between the filter bed and suspended particle of 1-10 microns diameter under the condition of -25 mV and -125 mV surface potential was also presented . The theoretical results are reasonably consistent with the experimental data, from which it can be concluded that the operation principles of micro-flocculation deep bed filtration could be analyzed by the physico-chemical interaction between the particles and filter media. J Appl Microbiol, 2003, 95(3), 591 - 601 Formation of natural biofilms during chlorine dioxide and u.v . disinfection in a public drinking water distribution system; Schwartz T et al.; AIMS: The influence of two disinfection techniques on natural biofilm development during drinking water treatment and subsequent distribution is compared with regard to the supply of a high-quality drinking water . METHODS AND RESULTS: The growth of biofilms was studied using the biofilm device technique in a real public technical drinking water asset . Different pipe materials which are commonly used in drinking water facilities (hardened polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, steel and copper) were used as substrates for biofilm formation . Apart from young biofilms, several months old biofilms were compared in terms of material dependence, biomass and physiological state . Vital staining of biofilms with 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) and the DNA-specific 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining resulted in a significant difference in physiological behaviour of biofilm populations depending on the disinfection technique . Compared with chlorine dioxide disinfection (0.12-0.16 mg l-1), the respiratory activities of the micro-organisms were increased on all materials during u.v . disinfection (u.v.254; 400 J m-2) . The biofilm biocoenosis was analysed by in situ hybridization with labelled oligonucleotides specific for some subclasses of Proteobacteria . Using PCR and additional hybridization techniques, the biofilms were also tested for the presence of Legionella spp., atypical mycobacteria and enterococci . The results of the molecular-biological experiments in combination with cultivation tests showed that enterococci were able to pass the u.v . disinfection barrier and persist in biofilms of the distribution system, but not after chlorine dioxide disinfection . CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that bacteria are able to regenerate and proliferate more effectively after u.v . irradiation at the waterworks, and chlorine dioxide disinfection appears to be more applicative to maintain a biological stable drinking water . SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: As far as the application of u.v . disinfection is used for conditioning of critical water sources for drinking water, the efficiency of u.v . irradiation in natural systems should reach a high standard to avoid adverse impacts on human health. Int J Environ Health Res, 2003 Sep, 13(3), 261 - 70 Myocarditis: an expected health hazard associated with water resources contaminated with Coxsackie viruses type B; Ali MA et al.; Enteroviruses, especially Coxsackie B viruses (CBVs), are responsible for approximately 50% of cases of viral myocarditis . In the present study, serum samples (160) were collected from acute myocarditis patients at different age groups and 104 samples of the same age groups as a control . Cholesterol, LDH, CPK, and GOT were measured for all serum samples (264) . Also, to study the source of virus transmission, 72 water and 72 wastewater samples were collected from water and wastewater treatment plants at intakes and outlets . Water and wastewater samples were concentrated by filtration through Zeta-plus filter cartridges and reconcentrated by the PEG-6000 precipitation method . Serum, water, and wastewater samples were inoculated in BGM cells for three successive passages . RT-PCR with enterovirus primers was carried out directly for serum samples and for 1st and 3rd cell culture passages . The positive samples were used for neutralization assay using anti-CBV sera pool to determine the CBV followed by neutralization with separate antisera . The results showed that 50 (31.25%) serum samples from acute myocarditis patients and two (1.4%) samples from the controls were positive for enterovirus RT-PCR . For water and wastewater samples enteroviruses were present in 63.8% and 8.3% for intake and outlet of water treatment plants and, 66.6% and 47.2% for intake and outlet of wastewater treatment plants, respectively . The level of CBV serotypes was varied where CBV3 was dominant for all age groups of myocarditis patients and CBV2 and CBV5 were also detected while CBV2 was the main CBV in water samples and CBV2, 3 and 5 were detected in wastewater samples . The integration of cell culture-PCR reduces the time required for virus detection and enhances the sensitivity of the test. Water Res, 2003 Sep, 37(16), 3815 - 20 Application of nano TiO(2) towards polluted water treatment combined with electro-photochemical method; Chen J et al.; A novel composite reactor was prepared and studied towards the degradation of organic pollutants in this work . In the reactor, a UV lamp was installed to provide energy to excite nano TiO(2), which served as photocatalyst, leading to the production of hole-electron pairs, and a three-electrode electrolysis system was used to accumulate H(2)O(2) which played an important role in the degradation process . The reactor was evaluated by the degradation process of rhodamine 6G (R-6G), and the data obtained in the experiments showed that the combination of the photochemical and electrochemical system raised the degradation rate of R-6G greatly; the working mechanism of the reactor was also discussed in the article . The prepared reactor was also utilized to treat polluted water from dyeing and printing process . After continuous treatment for 0.5h, chemical oxygen demand biochemical oxygen demand, quantity of bacteria and ammonia nitrogen of the polluted water were reduced by 93.9%, 87.6%, 99.9% and 67.5%, respectively, which indicated that the method used here could be used for effective organic dyes degradation. Ig Sanita Pubbl, 2002 Jan-Apr, 58(1-2), 17 - 24 {The importance of monitoring legionellosis in hospital setting: the case of a Sicilian Hospital}; Pignato S et al.; Hospital-acquired legionellosis is a major problem . In Italy this issue is still underestimated because the reported figures are lower than the actual cases . This is probably due to a lack of diagnosis and monitoring . In Sicily, no cases of hospital-acquired legionellosis were reported in the last few years . In the year 2001, a reference laboratory was set up to help health authorities monitor and prevent hospital-acquired legionellosis . The authors report the data concerning a measure of environmental monitoring and water treatment carried out in a hospital where no legionellosis was ever detected before. Chemosphere, 2003 Oct, 53(1), 97 - 100 Improvement of thermal hydrolysis rate of dichloroacetic acid using alcohol; Okuda T et al.; Dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) is produced during the oxidation of trichloroethylene . It is also produced in drinking water treatment as a disinfection by-product . DCAA is a problem material, because of its toxicity . The objective of this research is to find the final products and the reaction pathway of the DCAA decomposition by hydrolysis, and to increase the hydrolysis rate . The removal of both chlorine atoms in DCAA structure was achieved with hydrolysis at around 75 degrees C, and the final products were oxalic acid and glycolic acid . The reaction pathway was the production of oxalic acid and glycolic acid from two glyoxylic acid molecules by Cannizzaro reaction after the glyoxylic acid production from dechlorination of DCAA with hydrolysis . The hydrolysis rate of DCAA was increased with the use of 90% ethanol solution as solvent . The activation energy of DCAA was about 80 kJ/mol in it, while it was around 105 kJ/mol in water. Adv Ren Replace Ther, 2003 Apr, 10(2), 122 - 32 Design and technical adjustment of a water treatment system: 15 years of experience; Martin K et al.; This article gives a technical summary over the development of our dialysis water preparation site covering more than a decade of common effort to improve and secure water quality . We invite the reader to follow us through the experience of 3 major conception changes determined by available localities and resources, operational difficulties, and maintenance as well as progressive technologies and standards . Critical analysis aims to provide information to promote development in this area including details of preventable errors and misconceptions . The findings show that it is possible to achieve higher water quality on regular bases at affordable cost through technical changes, often minor; preventive maintenance; and continual monitoring of all components . Ground Water, 2003 Jul-Aug, 41(4), 493 - 503 Long-term performance of permeable reactive barriers using zero-valent iron: geochemical and microbiological effects; Wilkin RT et al.; Geochemical and microbiological factors that control long-term performance of subsurface permeable reactive barriers were evaluated at the Elizabeth City, North Carolina, and the Denver Federal Center, Colorado, sites . These ground water treatment systems use zero-valent iron filings (Peerless Metal Powders Inc.) to intercept and remediate chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds at the Denver Federal Center (funnel-and-gate system) and overlapping plumes of hexavalent chromium and chlorinated hydrocarbons at Elizabeth City (continuous wall system) . Zero-valent iron at both sites is a long-term sink for carbon, sulfur, calcium, silicon, nitrogen, and magnesium . After about four years of operation, the average rates of inorganic carbon (IC) and sulfur (S) accumulation are 0.09 and 0.02 kg/m2/year, respectively, at Elizabeth City where upgradient waters contain <400 mg/L of total dissolved solids (TDS) . At the Denver Federal Center site, upgradient ground water contains 1000 to 1200 mg/L TDS and rates of IC and S accumulation are as high as 2.16 and 0.80 kg/m2/year, respectively . At both sites, consistent patterns of spatially variable mineral precipitation and microbial activity are observed . Mineral precipitates and microbial biomass accumulate the fastest near the upgradient aquifer-Fe0 interface . Maximum net reductions in porosity due to the accumulation of sulfur and inorganic carbon precipitates range from 0.032 at Elizabeth City to 0.062 at the Denver Federal Center (gate 2) after about four years . Although pore space has been lost due the accumulation of authigenic components, neither site shows evidence of pervasive pore clogging after four years of operation. J Hypertens, 2003 Aug, 21(8), 1513 - 8 The anti-oxidant Tempol reverses and partially prevents adrenocorticotrophic hormone-induced hypertension in the rat; Zhang Y et al.; OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of the antioxidant Tempol on prevention and reversal of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)-induced hypertension in the rat, a model of hypertension characterized by nitric oxide deficiency . METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 10 in each group) were treated with either saline or ACTH (0.2 mg/kg per day, s.c.) for 12 days . Tempol (1 mmol/l in drinking water) treatment was started on either day 8 (T8) of ACTH or saline treatment (reversal study), or 4 days prior to ACTH or saline treatment (prevention study) . Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured using tail-cuff sphygmomanometry . Plasma F2-isoprostanes, a marker of oxidative stress, were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . RESULTS: ACTH increased SBP (mean +/- SEM: 119 +/- 5 to 147 +/- 7 mmHg, P < 0.0005) and plasma F2-isoprostane concentration (8.4 +/- 1.2 saline versus 12.9 +/- 1.6 nmol/l ACTH, P < 0.05) . Tempol alone did not alter SBP, but administration of Tempol on T8 reversed ACTH-induced hypertension (from 134 +/- 4 T8 to 118 +/- 3 mmHg, P < 0.005) . Tempol pre-treatment partially prevented ACTH-induced hypertension (123 +/- 2 mmHg, P' < 0.05) . However, Tempol had no effect on F2-isoprostane concentrations at the dose used in this study . CONCLUSIONS: ACTH-induced hypertension in the rat is associated with increased oxidative stress . Tempol treatment reversed, and pretreatment partially prevented ACTH-induced hypertension, independent of improvement in systemic oxidative stress. Chemosphere, 2003 Sep, 52(10), 1797 - 805 Optimizing electron spin resonance detection of hydroxyl radical in water; Cheng SA et al.; The parameters affecting the electron spin resonance (ESR) detection of hydroxyl free radical in water are studied and optimized . The hydroxyl radical is generated by the Fenton reaction with iron (II) ammonium sulfate and hydrogen peroxide reacting in a phosphate buffer using N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenylnitron as the spin trap . The concentrations of Fe(2+), H(2)O(2), and phosphate buffer are the parameters studied . The Taguchi method and the orthogonal experiment design were used to evaluate the effects of these parameters on the ESR signal intensity . By the analysis of the signal-to-noise ratio and the analysis of variance, the order of importance of the various parameters on the hydroxyl radical formation is determined for optimal ESR detection of hydroxyl radical . The results will help the development of water purification technologies using hydroxyl free radical as a green oxidant. Water Res, 2003 Sep, 37(15), 3622 - 31 Effect of turbulent gas-liquid contact in a static mixer on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst inactivation by ozone; Craik SA et al.; Static mixers may be used to dissolve gaseous ozone in water treatment facilities in order to provide protection against the waterborne parasite Cryptosporidium parvum . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of a brief exposure to turbulent gas-liquid mixing conditions in a static mixer on inactivation of C . parvum oocysts by ozone . Inactivation measured in an ozone contacting apparatus that employed a static mixer for ozone dissolution was compared to predictions based on a previously published kinetic model of C . parvum inactivation by dissolved ozone in gently stirred batch reactors . Although initial contact in the static mixer had no immediate effect on the oocysts, a 20% increase in the rate of inactivation during subsequent contact with dissolved ozone was observed . Increasing the degree of turbulence within the static mixer did not yield additional inactivation . Use of static mixers for dissolution of ozone in drinking water treatment systems may provide limited enhancement of C . parvum inactivation by dissolved ozone. Chemosphere, 2003 Sep, 52(9), 1441 - 50 Chemical and microbiological qualities of The East River (Dongjiang) water, with particular reference to drinking water supply in Hong Kong; Ho KC et al.; Currently, about 80% of drinking water in Hong Kong is abstracted from The East River (Dongjiang) that is located in the mainland side of China . Literature records and monitoring results of 2000-2001 confirmed that the lower section of the Dongjiang had been contaminated by organic and inorganic pollutants . Statistical analyses showed that the increases of total cadmium, copper and zinc in the surface layer of sediment of Hong Kong reservoirs from 1994 to 2001 were positively correlated (significant at p<0.05) with those in the surface layer of sediments of the lower Dongjiang . Recent microbiological survey revealed that pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Vibro spp., Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum appeared occasionally in water samples of the Dongjiang and Hong Kong reservoirs . While analytical results found that currently most of the heavy metals, trace organics and microbes were removed by the drinking water treatment plants in Hong Kong, the long-term health risk of drinking water contamination should not be overlooked . The Water Supplies Department of Hong Kong is recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring program to cover pathogenic bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(10), 155 - 62 Process water treatment at the Ranger uranium mine, Northern Australia; Topp H et al.; The conceptual development and piloting of an innovative water treatment system for process water produced by a uranium mine mill is described . The process incorporates lime/CO2 softening (Stage 1), reverse osmosis (Stage 2) and biopolishing (Stage 3) to produce water of quality suitable for release to the receiving environment . Comprehensive performance data are presented for each stage . The unique features of the proposed process are: recycling of the lime/CO2 softening sludge to the uranium mill as a neutralant, the use of power station off-gas for carbonation, the use of residual ammonia as the pH buffer in carbonation; and the recovery and recycling of ammonia from the RO reject stream. Gig Sanit, 2003 May-Jun, (3), 11 - 4 {The evaluation of effluent water toxicity for the activated sludge in water purification facilities}; Dobrynina LF et al.; The condition of activated sludge, which predetermines the efficiency of functioning of purification facilities, depends to a great extent on a toxicity degree of waste-waters coming for purification . The results of a study of toxicity of effluents of an industrial enterprise by using the methods of the chemical-and-analytic and toxicological monitoring are described in the article . The conducted investigations made it possible to specify an effluents' flow, which is most toxic for the activated-sludge microorganisms, for the purpose of its further localization. J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jul 4, 101(1), 43 - 53 Modified dissolved organic matter fractionation technique for natural water; Marhaba TF et al.; A technique to fractionate dissolved organic materials (DOMs) from low DOM water (<5mg/l) was developed by using triple columns of DAX-8 adsorption resin, one column of AG-MP-50 cationic resin, and another column of WA 10 weak anionic resin in sequence . The procedure was then applied to fractionate water samples obtained at various sampling locations throughout two surface water treatment plants (WTPs) in central New Jersey to study its effectiveness, DOM occurrence, and variation along treatment units . The treatment plants utilize different treatment methods, hence producing variability in DOM fractions suitable for examining the procedure's effectiveness . This procedure was compared with current fractionation protocols and proved to be accurate in fractionation of low DOM water. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2003, 10(3), 183 - 7 International standardization of water analysis: basis for comparative assessment of water quality; Schmidt S; The efficiency of a water treatment program or a water monitoring program can be checked only if it is accompanied by water analysis procedures allowing meaningful statements on water quality . Meaningful statements do not only include high accuracy, but high precision as well . With high precision values, good repeatability and reproducibility is aimed for . Repeatability and reproducibility may either be monitored by regular inter-laboratory trials, without prescribing a distinct analytical method, or by applying a standardized method which has undergone thorough checks concerning its reliability and efficiency . The article presents the structure of the ISO, CEN and DIN standardization work in water analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 69(7), 3979 - 85 Chlorine inactivation of adenovirus type 40 and feline calicivirus; Thurston-Enriquez JA et al.; Ct values, the concentration of free chlorine multiplied by time of contact with virus, were determined for free-chlorine inactivation experiments carried out with chloroform-extracted (dispersed) and non-chloroform-extracted (aggregated) feline calicivirus (FCV), adenovirus type 40 (AD40), and polio virus type 1 (PV-1) . Experiments were carried out with high and low pH and temperature conditions . Ct values were calculated directly from bench-scale free-chlorine inactivation experiments and from application of the efficiency factor Hom model . For each experimental condition, Ct values were higher at pH 8 than at pH 6, higher at 5 degrees C than at 15 degrees C, and higher for dispersed AD40 (dAD40) than for dispersed FCV (dFCV) . dFCV and dAD40 were more sensitive to free chlorine than dispersed PV-1 (dPV-1) . Cts for 2 log inactivation of aggregated FCV (aFCV) and aggregated PV-1 (aPV-1) were 31.0 and 2.8 orders of magnitude higher than those calculated from experiments carried out with dispersed virus . Cts for 2 log inactivation of dFCV and dAD40 in treated groundwater at 15 degrees C were 1.2 and 13.7 times greater than in buffered-demand-free (BDF) water experiments at 5 degrees C . Ct values listed in the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Guidance Manual were close to, or lower than, Ct values generated for experiments conducted with dispersed and aggregated viruses suspended in BDF water and for dispersed viruses suspended in treated groundwater . Since the state of viruses in water is most likely to be aggregated and associated with organic or inorganic matter, reevaluation of the EPA Guidance Manual Ct values is necessary, since they would not be useful for ensuring inactivation of viruses in these states . Under the tested conditions, dAD40, dFCV, aFCV, dPV-1, and aPV-1 particles would be inactivated by commonly used free chlorine concentrations (1 mg/liter) and contact times (60 to 237 min) applied for drinking water treatment in the United States. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 69(7), 3819 - 25 Influence of surface characteristics on the stability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts; Butkus MA et al.; Microelectrophoresis is a common technique for probing the surface chemistry of the Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst . Results of previous studies of the electrophoretic mobility of C . parvum oocysts in which microelectrophoresis was used are incongruent . In this work we demonstrated that capillary electrophoresis may also be used to probe the surface characteristics of C . parvum oocysts, and we related the surface chemistry of C . parvum oocysts to their stability in water . Capillary electrophoresis results indicated that oocysts which were washed in a phosphate buffer solution had neutrally charged surfaces . Inactivation of oocysts with formalin did not influence their electrophoretic mobility, while oocyst populations that were washed in distilled water consisted of cells with both neutral and negative surface charges . These results indicate that washing oocysts in low-ionic-strength distilled water can impart a negative charge to a fraction of the oocysts in the sample . Rapid coagulation experiments indicated that oocysts did not aggregate in a 0.5 M NaCl solution; oocyst stability in the salt solution may have been the result of Lewis acid-base forces, steric stabilization, or some other factor . The presence of sucrose and Percoll could not be readily identified on the surface of C . parvum oocysts by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, suggesting that these purification reagents may not be responsible for the stability of the uncharged oocysts . These findings imply that precipitate enmeshment may be the optimal mechanism of coagulation for removal of oocysts in water treatment systems . The results of this work may help elucidate the causes of variation in oocyst surface characteristics, may ultimately lead to improved removal efficiencies in full-scale water treatment systems, and may improve fate and transport predictions for oocysts in natural systems. Risk Anal, 2003 Jun, 23(3), 627 - 39 The financial management of catastrophic flood risks in emerging-economy countries; Kunreuther HC et al.; This article examines the potential of pre- and post-disaster instruments for funding disaster response and recovery and for creating incentives for flood loss mitigation in countries with emerging or transition economies . As a concrete case, we discuss the disaster recovery arrangements following the 1997 flood disaster in Poland . We examine the advantages and limitations of hedging instruments, which are instruments for transferring the risk to investors either through insurance or capital market-based securities . We compare these mechanisms with financing instruments whereby the government sets aside funds prior to a disaster or taps its own funding sources after the event occurs . We show how hedging instruments can be designed to create incentives for the mitigation of damage to public infrastructure using the flood proofing of a water-treatment plant on the hypothetical Topping River as an illustrative example . We conclude that hedging instruments can be an attractive alternative to financing instruments that have been traditionally used in the poorer, emerging-economy countries to fund disaster recovery . Since very poor countries are likely to have difficulty paying the price of protection prior to a disaster, we suggest that international lending institutions consider innovations for subsidizing these payments. J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jun 27, 100(1-3), 131 - 46 Enhancing phosphate removal from wastewater by using polyelectrolytes and clay injection; Ozacar M et al.; Aluminum sulfate, alum, is a common chemical coagulant used for coagulation . Recently, polymers have been utilized in coagulation/flocculation processes for water purification . In this study, the ability of two organic polymers, tannin (natural polyelectrolyte) and AN913 (synthetic anionic polyelectrolyte), and clay to act as coagulant aids was tested, in the removal of phosphate from synthetic wastewater . Contaminants in synthetic waters were coagulated using alum, alum+clay, alum+tannin, alum+AN913, alum+tannin+clay and alum+AN913+clay . Alum together with polymers as coagulant aids yielded a significant improvement in phosphate removal compared with alum alone, for initial phosphate concentrations of 5-15 mg/l PO(4)(3-) . The use of clay and polyelectrolytes improved the efficiency of phosphate removal and lowered the required alum dose . Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used for the identification and characterization of the aluminum species formed during dephosphorization of the synthetic wastewater with and without tannin, AN913 and clay . Evidence from FTIR spectroscopy showed the formation of aluminum hydroxyphosphate, hydroxy-Al-tannate and aluminum complexes containing phosphorus, tannin and AN913. J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jun 27, 100(1-3), 117 - 30 Comparison of spectral fluorescent signatures-based models to characterize DOM in treated water samples; Bengraine K et al.; Statistical procedures enable a multivariate analysis of the measurements to identify specific characteristics of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) fractions in raw natural water, including the concentrations . In this work, three already established models were used to predict the concentrations of fractions of DOM from spectral fluorescent signatures (SFSs): a general linear regression (GLR), loadings and scores of a principal components analysis (PCA), and a partial least squares regression (PLS) . Details about the method undertaken to prepare the fractions were given . Water samples from surface water treatment plants in New Jersey were used for the testing . In all cases, PLS have shown much better biases and accuracies than GLR and PCA models . Hydrophilic neutral, however, showed poor performances (bias 33%) due to the isolation technique used . Recommendations were provided in order to improve the DOM characterization through SFS, which linked to PLS make a powerful and cost-effective surrogate parameter to characterize DOM. Water Res, 2003 Aug, 37(14), 3367 - 78 Pretreatment for membrane water treatment systems: a laboratory study; Wend CF et al.; The goal of the work was to determine if biological treatment of water containing soil-derived humic substances has the potential for reducing the fouling of membranes used in water treatment . Laboratory scale biological filters containing biologically active carbon or iron oxide coated sand were fed humic-laden water with or without prechlorination . This stream was split, with half being further treated by microfiltration . Treated water was assessed for total organic carbon removal and biofouling potential using a glass bead assay and membrane assay for total cell counts, fouling layer thickness, and flux reduction . A combination of these assays provided more insight than any single measurement . Compared to untreated control water, biological treatment was capable of reducing downstream fouling of membrane systems . For example, fouling layer thickness was reduced by half after biological treatment, and cell counts were reduced four- to five-fold . Biological treatment coupled with microfiltration provided the best reduction of fouling, while prechlorination did not appear to impact the process . These results suggest that biological treatment may be valuable in reducing membrane fouling while reducing the amount of disinfectants used in pretreatment. Water Res, 2003 Aug, 37(14), 3341 - 50 Effects of raw water conditions on solution-state aluminum speciation during coagulant dilution; Exall KN et al.; The speciation of aluminum in solutions of alum and various prehydrolyzed, aluminum-based water treatment coagulants was investigated by 27Al NMR at 5 degrees C and 25 degrees C . Alum solutions were seen to contain only mononuclear species including an AlSO4(+) complex, while the prehydrolyzed coagulant solutions contained polynuclear aluminum species, as well . The relative proportions of both polynuclear species and AlSO4(+) complex decreased in cold water . The presence of organic matter had little effect on the speciation of aluminum in diluted alum, but markedly reduced the relative proportion of the tridecamer species in the prehydrolyzed coagulant solutions . The relationship between Al speciation in the coagulants and organic matter removal during jar tests was considered, and the possible role of sulfate in both the formation of the tridecamer species and the effect of organic matter on coagulation efficiency was discussed. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(9), 77 - 84 The fate of estrogenic compounds in the aquatic environment: sorption onto organic colloids; Yamamoto H et al.; In this study, sorption of some estrogens and estrogenic compounds onto several organic colloids was examined using fluorescence quenching techniques . Selected organic colloids included humic substances of several sources, Aldrich humic acid (AHA), Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA), Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA), and Nordic fulvic acid (NFA) . Polysaccharides, alginic acid (AA) and dextran (Dex), and tannic acid (TA) were also selected . 17beta-estradiol (E2), 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EES), and estriol (E3) were selected as estrogens . Nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP), and dibutylphthalate (DBP) were selected as estrogenic compounds . For most of the selected compounds, the sorption coefficients were in the order of TA > humic acids (SRHA or AHA) > fulvic acids (NFA or SRFA) > AA . The smallest or no significant sorption onto dextran was found for selected estrogens and estrogenic compounds . Comparing those compounds, neither a significant trend nor linear correlation with Log K(ow) was found . The resulting sorption coefficients for humic substances and TA suggested approximately 15 to 50% of the estrogens and estrogenic compounds were bound in typical natural water of 5 mg TOC/L and significant effects on the removal of them by water treatment processes, toxicity, or bioavailability were suggested. Am J Kidney Dis, 2003 Jul, 42(1 Suppl), 66 - 70 Equipment and water treatment considerations for the provision of quotidian home hemodialysis; Mehrabian S et al.; BACKGROUND: Whereas clinical benefits of more frequent hemodialysis (HD) treatment are well documented, little information is available about technical aspects involved in setting up a patient's home for home HD . Technical considerations include the home infrastructure, as well as required plumbing modifications and electrical hook-ups . METHODS: Twenty home HD installations were supported for the London Daily/Nocturnal Hemodialysis Study . The Fresenius 2008H (Fresenius Medical Care, North America, Lexington, MA) HD machine was used for all home HD installations in conjunction with a Service Deionization Tank (SDI) water treatment system composed of pretreatment, purification, and posttreatment components . To ensure that SDI systems provided high-quality water and dialysate, standard bacteriological testing was performed throughout the study, and patient serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were tracked as an indicator of nonspecific inflammation . RESULTS: The annual number of hours of work required for each home HD installation and service/maintenance was approximately 75 and 58 hours, respectively . Water quality proved high because there were only 4 occurrences of failed endotoxin and bacterial tests; all were subsequently retested and provided satisfactory results . Serum CRP levels showed no significant difference comparing home HD patients with conventional in-center HD control patients . CONCLUSION: Although support of 20 home HD installations was economically feasible within the constraints of the London Health Sciences Centre Department of Biomedical Engineering, resources were strained by the final year of the study . This suggests that any sustained growth beyond the current study design may require a review of staffing, resources, and model of service delivery needs. Community Dent Health, 2003 Jun, 20(2), 94 - 9 Mapping caries prevalence and water distribution in Wales-- Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority as a case study; Morgan MZ et al.; STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate the use of mapping in targeting water fluoridation to areas of high need in lechyd Morgannwg Health Authority, as defined by the upper quintile of the distribution of the percentage with dmft > 0 in dental planning areas . DESIGN: Data from the 1997/98 childhood dental epidemiological survey and the Welsh Water Company water supply zones (as at 1997) were plotted . Maps were generated to identify the relationship between water supply areas, water supply sources and areas of high caries prevalence . SETTING: Maps focussed upon one Welsh health authority, Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority . Examinations for the childhood epidemiology programme took place in schools . PARTICIPANTS: 5-year-old children examined in the 1997/98 survey . MAIN RESULTS: Data presented by very different geographical boundaries were compared without having to carry out complex mathematical transformations . It was possible to quickly identify areas of Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority with high levels of oral disease, the associated water supply zones and their water treatment centres with a view to possible future targeting of fluoridation . The maps identify the possibility of dilution, when a particular water supply zone was served by more than one treatment works . CONCLUSIONS: This technique enables disparate and complex data bases to be combined enabling visual analysis of the results . The maps facilitate decision making as to the most beneficial areas to fluoridate . The results will be of value in determining the feasibility and targeting of water fluoridation in Wales. Sci Total Environ, 2003 Jul 20, 311(1-3), 135 - 49 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface and treated waters of Louisiana, USA and Ontario, Canada; Boyd GR et al.; A newly developed analytical method was used to measure concentrations of nine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in samples from two surface water bodies, a sewage treatment plant effluent and various stages of a drinking water treatment plant in Louisiana, USA, and from one surface water body, a drinking water treatment plant and a pilot plant in Ontario, Canada . The analytical method provides for simultaneous extraction and quantification of the following broad range of PPCPs and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: naproxen; ibuprofen; estrone; 17beta-estradiol; bisphenol A; clorophene; triclosan; fluoxetine; and clofibric acid . Naproxen was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 81-106 ng/l and Louisiana and Ontario surface waters at 22-107 ng/l . Triclosan was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 10-21 ng/l . Of the three surface waters sampled, clofibric acid was detected in Detroit River water at 103 ng/l, but not in Mississippi River or Lake Pontchartrain waters . None of the other target analytes were detected above their method detection limits . Based on results at various stages of treatment, conventional drinking-water treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation) plus continuous addition of powdered activated carbon at a dosage of 2 mg/l did not remove naproxen from Mississippi River waters . However, chlorination, ozonation and dual media filtration processes reduced the concentration of naproxen below detection in Mississippi River and Detroit River waters and reduced clofibric acid in Detroit River waters . Results of this study demonstrate that existing water treatment technologies can effectively remove certain PPCPs . In addition, our study demonstrates the importance of obtaining data on removal mechanisms and byproducts associated with PPCPs and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water and sewage treatment processes. Cytokine, 2003 Mar 7, 21(5), 214 - 23 Neutrophil migration induced by IL-8-activated mast cells is mediated by CINC-1; Ramos CD et al.; The aim of this study was to characterize the mediators released by mast cells responsible for IL-8-induced neutrophil migration . It was observed that IL-8 induces a dose-dependent neutrophil migration into peritoneal cavity of rats, but not into air-pouch cavity in which resident mast cells are not present . The transference of peritoneal mast cells to the air-pouch renders this cavity responsive to IL-8 . The neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 into the peritoneal cavity was not observed when the peritoneal-resident mast cells were depleted by compound 48/80 or distilled water treatment . Confirming the importance of mast cells, IL-8-stimulated mast cells supernatant induced significant neutrophil migration when injected into peritoneal and air-pouch cavities . The IL-8-induced neutrophil migration was observed not to be dependent on LTB(4), prostaglandins or TNF-alpha, since MK886, indomethacin or thalidomide were unable to block the IL-8-induced neutrophil accumulation 'in vivo' or the release of neutrophil chemotactic factor "in vitro" by IL-8-stimulated mast cells . However, dexamethasone, an inhibitor of the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, blocked the neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 "in vivo" and also inhibited the release of the neutrophil chemotactic factor by IL-8-stimulated mast cells . Moreover, the incubation of IL-8-stimulated mast cells supernatant with antibody against cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 (CINC-1), but not against TNF-alpha or IL-1beta, inhibited its neutrophil chemotactic activity . Furthermore, we found a significant amount of CINC-1 in this supernatant . In conclusion, we demonstrated that the neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 is dependent on CINC-1 release from mast cells. Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 5(7), 592 - 8 An immunomagnetic separation-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IMS-RT-PCR) test for sensitive and rapid detection of viable waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum; Hallier-Soulier S et al.; The public health problem posed by the waterborne parasite Cryptosporidium parvum incited the water supply industry to develop very accurate analytical tools able to assess the presence of viable oocysts in drinking water . In this study, we report the development of a viability assay for C . parvum oocysts based on immunomagnetic separation and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IMS-RT-PCR) . The detection limit of the IMS-RT-PCR assay, which targets the hsp70 heat shock-induced mRNA, was in the range of ten viable oocysts per 100-l tap water samples . Purified Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were exposed to heating, freezing and three chemical disinfection treatments namely, chlorination, chlorine dioxide treatment and ozonation under conventional doses used in water treatment plants, then detected by IMS-PCR and IMS-RT-PCR . The results obtained by IMS-PCR showed that none of the treatments had an effect on oocyst detection . The inactivation of oocysts by boiling resulted in no RT-PCR signal . Chlorine as well as chlorine dioxide did not influence oocyst viability as determined by IMS-RT-PCR . Ozone more effectively inactivated oocysts . The IMS-RT-PCR assay in conjunction with IMS-PCR marks the development of a combined detection and viability test which can be used for drinking water quality control as well as for reliable evaluation of treatment efficiency. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 2003, 39(1), 111 - 23 {Indicators for marine environment: a preliminary application of an integrated approach}; Melley A; A draft set of indicators was selected to make a state assessment of Italian coastal environment, based upon DPSIR scheme (driving, pressure, state, impact, response), a method which can describe different components of complex environmental systems . The selected indicators are the followings: population and tourism (driving); manufacturing, potential organic loads, trophic loads, maritime transport, fishing fleet, fishing intensity, maricolture (pressure); trophic index TRIX, microbiological quality index IQB (state); bathing water quality (impact); waste water treatment budget, register of sewers, protected areas (response) . A brief description is presented for each indicator, in relation to their most important features, construction modalities and environmental meaning. Ann Chim, 2003 Apr, 93(4), 347 - 52 The artificial water cycle: emergy analysis of waste water treatment; Bastianoni S et al.; The artificial water cycle can be divided into the phases of water capture from the environment, potabilisation, distribution, waste water collection, waste water treatment and discharge back into the environment . The terminal phase of this cycle, from waste water collection to discharge into the environment, was assessed by emergy analysis . Emergy is the quantity of solar energy needed directly or indirectly to provide a product or energy flow in a given process . The emergy flow attributed to a process is therefore an index of the past and present environmental cost to support it . Six municipalities on the western side of the province of Bologna were analysed . Waste water collection is managed by the municipal councils and treatment is carried out in plants managed by a service company . Waste water collection was analysed by compiling a mass balance of the sewer system serving the six municipalities, including construction materials and sand for laying the pipelines . Emergy analysis of the water treatment plants was also carried out . The results show that the great quantity of emergy required to treat a gram of water is largely due to input of non renewable fossil fuels . As found in our previous analysis of the first part of the cycle, treatment is likewise characterised by high expenditure of non renewable resources, indicating a correlation with energy flows. J Environ Qual, 2003 May-Jun, 32(3), 1053 - 7 Effects of prolonged irrigation with treated municipal effluent on runoff rate; Agassi M et al.; The use of domestic effluents for the irrigation of crops has been widespread in Israel for the past 30 years . The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the standardized domestic effluents ranges between 4 and 6 . According to the literature, when soils with SAR levels of 4 to 6 are exposed to direct raindrop impact they are subjected to enhanced aggregate disintegration, leading to sealing processes of the soil surface and subsequent increased runoff and soil erosion . However, these phenomena were not observed in the laboratory and field experiments of thi