Water treatment

Forensic Sci Int, 2003 Nov 26, 137(2-3), 133 - 40
Torture and its sequel--a comparison between victims from six countries; Moisander PA et al.; The aim of the study was to compare torture victims from six different nations and analyse differences and similarities . From the files of the Centre for Trauma Victims in Stockholm (KTC), 160 patients were selected: 53 patients from Bangladesh, 21 from Iran, 16 from Peru, 24 from Syria, 25 from Turkey, and 21 from Uganda . The data was classified into: (i) information about social conditions and circumstances pertaining to alleged torture, (ii) type of trauma and torture methods, and (iii) acute and late sequel to torture . Descriptive and non-parametric statistics were used in the analyses . There was a strong male dominance in all but the Ugandan group where 43% were women . The majority in all but the Turkish group had college exams and/or university studies . Over 84% were members of a political organisation except in the Iranian and Syrian groups, where more than 40% had no political affiliation . The majority in all groups had travelled to Sweden alone to apply for asylum, but most refugees from Turkey, Iran, and Syria had close relatives already living in Sweden . The stories of circumstances and torture methods were similar within each group but differed a great deal between groups . Typically, in Bangladesh, Peru, and Turkey, the periods under arrest were short: from a few hours to 3 days . In Iran, Uganda, and Syria, the time in custody varied from several months to several years . A prison sentence preceded by trial was common only in Iran . Many patients, especially from Bangladesh and Turkey, had been arrested several times . Sensory deprivation by isolation and blindfolding was common in all countries except Uganda and Peru . Beating with fists, sticks, truncheons, etc . were reported in 100% in every group . In Bangladesh, police batons (lathi) were used more commonly than in any other group . Whipping with electric cords occurred frequently only in Iran and Syria . Rape was most often reported among the Ugandans . Genital torture was frequently alleged by patients from Bangladesh and Turkey . Suspension was common in all countries except for Uganda . Falaka, i.e . beating of the soles, and electric torture were common (>60%) in Bangladesh, Iran, Syria, and Turkey . Sharp injuries inflicted with knives and bayonets were often seen among the Bangladeshi and Ugandans . Burning injuries due to cigarettes were commonly seen only in patients from Bangladesh . Some methods were found to be almost exclusive for each country: "water treatment" (Bangladesh), the "tyre" (Syria), "telephono" and "submarino" (Peru) . The sequel of torture differed in some respects between groups . Fractures were more common among Iranians . Patients from Uganda and Bangladesh had numerous scars . Subjectively reported symptoms were most frequent among Bangladeshi, especially joint pain and ear, nose, and throat symptoms and least frequent among Ugandans . PTSD diagnosed on the basis of a psychiatric interview and psychological tests was found in 69-92% of patients in all groups . The study shows significant differences between countries regarding circumstances, torture methods, and sequel to torture . This knowledge is of value to forensic specialists documenting alleged torture and essential for fair and valid forensic statements.

Environ Monit Assess, 2003 Nov, 89(1), 69 - 93
Trihalomethanes in drinking water of greater Québec region (Canada): occurrence, variations and modelling; Rodriguez MJ et al.; The levels of trihalomethanes (THMs)--the main species of by-product from water chlorination--were monitored in the distribution systems of the five major drinking water utilities of the greater area of Quebec City in order to investigate and model their occurrence on a spatial and seasonal basis . Data for THMs and other water quality and operational parameters associated with their formation were generated through a 16 month sampling program involving several sites representing variable water residence times, from the plant to the system extremity . The results demonstrate that the differences in measured THM levels between the five utilities are mainly due to the variable quality of raw waters, the type of water treatment process being used and the type and levels of applied disinfectant . Depending on the utility, average THM levels were from 1.3 to 2.5 times higher in the system extremities than in the water leaving the treatment plant . Also, average levels of THMs measured in summer at the distribution system extremities were, depending on the utility, from 2.5 to 5 times higher than the average levels measured in winter . The seasonal differences were found to be significantly greater than those observed by others in water utilities in the United States and Europe and are explained in large part by the considerable changes, over the year, in the quality and temperature of surface waters in Southern Quebec . For the live utilities under study, multivariate regression models were developed in order to predict spatial and seasonal variations of THMs . Both residual chlorine demand and temperature were found to be better, statistically, as predictors for THM occurrence . The usefulness of the developed models for routine and long term water quality management, as well as for assessment of human exposure to THMs, are also discussed.

Environ Toxicol, 2003 Dec, 18(6), 361 - 7
Effects of riboflavin photoproducts on microbial activity during photosensitization of atrazine transformation; Glover H et al.; The contributions and effects of photolysis and microbial assemblages to 37.6 mg/L riboflavin-sensitized atrazine transformation were studied along with the toxicity of the intermediate mixtures . High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that riboflavin significantly enhanced the phototransformation of atrazine (10 mg/L) by reducing the parent compound concentration to less than 20% in 72 h . However, radiotracer measurements indicated atrazine was not mineralized to the same degree after 3 days of exposure . We hypothesize that riboflavin-sensitized transformation of atrazine is primarily photochemical; however, the biological component seems to promote overall atrazine degradation under solar irradiation . Based on the results of spread plate counting or 14C-glucose mineralization measurement, at a test concentration of 12.1 mg/L, lumichrome (a major riboflavin photoproduct) was found to be nontoxic to the test microbial assemblages in a reservoir water sample . Other riboflavin photoproducts and/or certain chemically reactive species were speculated to cause a cytotoxic effect . Overall, our data indicate that riboflavin may be an economical photosensitizing agent for atrazine degradation, but the apparent photoinduced cytotoxicity observed during transformation is of concern to the microbial assemblages that are needed for complete remediation . Further investigation into why the biotic component enhances riboflavin phototransformation of atrazine and the time frame of microbial recovery from riboflavin inhibition is needed . Such work may lead to cost-effective surface water treatment systems involving combined photochemical and microbial degradation processes .

Water Res, 2003 Dec, 37(20), 4855 - 62
Purification of metal electroplating waste waters using zeolites; Alvarez-Ayuso E et al.; The sorption behaviour of natural (clinoptilolite) and synthetic (NaP1) zeolites has been studied with respect to Cr(III), Ni(II), Zn(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) in order to consider its application to purify metal finishing waste waters . The batch method has been employed using metal concentrations in solution ranged from 10 to 200 mg/l and solid/liquid ratios ranged from 2.5 to 10 g/l . The Langmuir model was found to describe well all sorption processes, allowing to establish metal sorption sequences from which the main retention mechanism involved for each metal has been inferred . Synthetic zeolite exhibited about 10 times greater sorption capacities (b(Cr)=0.838 mmol/g, b(Ni)=0.342 mmol/g, b(Zn)=0.499 mmol/g, b(Cu)=0.795 mmol/g, b(Cd)=0.452 mmol/g) than natural zeolite (b(Cr)=0.079 mmol/g, b(Ni)=0.034 mmol/g, b(Zn)=0.053 mmol/g, b(Cu)=0.093 mmol/g, b(Cd)=0.041 mmol/g), appearing, therefore, as most suitable to perform metal waste water purification processes . This mineral showed the same high sorption capacity values when used in the purification of metal electroplating waste waters.

Water Environ Res, 2003 Sep-Oct, 75(5), 455 - 71
Flow and transport simulation models for prediction of chlorine contact tank flow-through curves; Wang H et al.; Turbulent flow, solute transport, and chemical and biological decay are some of the basic processes encountered in water treatment plants . This paper presents recent developments in the numerical simulation of turbulent flow and disinfection processes in disinfection contact tanks . Simulation runs have been conducted for various tank design alternatives and in different grid resolutions . The accuracy of simulated contact tank flow and the disinfection process depends largely on calculations of the hydrodynamic and solute transport characteristics in the tanks . A key factor of this is the accuracy of advection and shear stress term computations, which can be affected by the use of different hydrodynamic submodels and numerical schemes . The performance of a simulation model relies to a great extent on the right combination of such submodels and numerical schemes . In this study, a number of simulation models were tested against realistic tank configurations and measurements to evaluate the various combinations of turbulence models and difference schemes by analyzing predicted flow and solute transport patterns, as well as the corresponding flow-through curves . Models for disinfection tank simulations are recommended based on comparisons of simulation results with measurements . These models may also be applied to other water treatment processes such as wastewater treatment.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Oct 1, 37(19), 4468 - 74
Selective coagulant recovery from water treatment plant residuals using Donnan membrane process; Prakash P et al.; Fouling of membrane surfaces by particulate matter and large organic molecules is relatively common for pressure-driven membrane processes, namely, reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and ultrafiltration (UF) . Donnan membrane process (DMP) or Donnan Dialysis is driven by electrochemical potential gradient across a semipermeable ion exchange membrane . Theoretically, DMP is not susceptible to fouling by fine particulates and/or large organic molecules . According to information available in the open literature, however, DMP has not been tried to treat slurry or sludge with relatively high concentration of suspended solids or large organic molecules . This study presents the salient results of an extensive investigation pertaining to selective alum recovery from water treatment residuals (WTR) using DMP . Water treatment plants use alum, Al2(SO4)3 x 14H2O, as a coagulant, alum being finally converted and discharged as insoluble aluminum hydroxide along with natural organic matters (NOM), suspended solids, and other trace impurities . One commercial cation exchange membrane, namely Nafion 117 from DuPont Chemical Co., was used in the study for treating WTR obtained from two different water treatment plants in Pennsylvania . A series of laboratory tests confirmed that over 70% of alum is easily recoverable, and recovered alum is essentially free of particulate matter, NOM, and other trace metals . Most importantly, after repeated usage in the presence of high concentration of NOM and suspended solids, there was no noticeable decline in aluminum flux through the membrane, i.e., membrane surface fouling was practically absent . The DMP process involves coupled transport of Al3+ and H+ across the cation exchange membrane, and intramembrane transport was the rate-limiting step . Experimentally determined aluminum-hydrogen interdiffusion coefficient (D(Al-H)) values within the membrane were quite high (approximately 10(-6) cm2/s) under representative conditions, thus confirming high alum recovery rate . DMP was also found equally effective in recovering Fe(III) based coagulants from WTR.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Oct 1, 37(19), 4442 - 8
Occurrence and removal of estrogenic short-chain ethoxy nonylphenolic compounds and their halogenated derivatives during drinking water production; Petrovic M et al.; The elimination of nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol mono- and diethoxylates (NP1EO and NP2EO), nonylphenol carboxylates (NP1EC and NP2EC) and their brominated and chlorinated derivatives during drinking water treatment process in Sant Joan Despf waterworks in Barcelona was investigated utilizing a recently developed, highly sensitive LC-MS-MS method . The concentration of these potentially estrogenic compounds in raw water entering waterworks (taken from the Llobregat River, NE Spain) ranged from 8.3 to 22 microg/L, with NP2EC being the most abundant compound . Prechlorination reduced the concentration of short-chain ethoxy NPECs and NPEOs by about 25-35% and of NP by almost 90% . However, this reduction of concentrations was partially due to their transformation to halogenated derivatives . After prechlorination, halogenated nonylphenolic compounds represented approximately 13% of the total metabolite pool, of which 97% were in the form of brominated acidic metabolites . The efficiency of further treatment steps to eliminate nonylphenolic compounds (calculated for the sum of all short-chain ethoxy metabolites including halogenated derivatives) was as follows: settling and flocculation followed by rapid sand filtration (7%), ozonation (87%), GAC filtration (73%), and final disinfection with chlorine (43%), resulting in overall elimination ranging from 96 to 99% (mean 98% for four sampling dates) . A few of the nonylphenolic compounds (NP, NP1EC, and NP2EC) were also identified in drinking water; however, the residues detected were generally below 100 ng/L, with one exception for NP2EC in November 2001 when a concentration of 215 ng/L was detected.

Mutat Res, 2003 Nov 10, 541(1-2), 103 - 13
Comparison of the mutagenic activity of XAD4 and blue rayon extracts of surface water and related drinking water samples; Kummrow F et al.; The combination of mutagenicity tests and selective extraction methodologies can be useful to indicate the possible classes of genotoxic organic contaminants in water samples . Treated and source water samples from two sites were analyzed: a river under the influence of an azo dye-processing plant discharge and a reservoir not directly impacted with industrial discharges, but contaminated with untreated domestic sewage . Organic extraction was performed in columns packed with XAD4 resin, that adsorbs a broad class of mutagenic compounds like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), arylamines, nitrocompounds, quinolines, antraquinones, etc., including the halogenated disinfection by-products; and with blue rayon that selectively adsorbs polycyclic planar structures . The organic extracts were tested for mutagenicity with the Salmonella assay using TA98 and TA100 strains and the potencies were compared . A protocol for cleaning the blue rayon fibers was developed and the efficiency of the reused fibers was analyzed with spiked samples . For the river water samples under the influence of the azo-type dye-processing plant, the mutagenicity was much higher for both blue rayon and XAD4 extracts when compared to the water from the reservoir not directly impacted with industrial discharges . For the drinking water samples, although both sites showed mutagenic responses with XAD4, only samples from the site under the influence of the industrial discharge showed mutagenic activity with the blue rayon extraction, suggesting the presence of polycyclic compounds in those samples . As expected, negative results were found with the blue rayon extracts of the drinking water collected from the reservoir not contaminated with industrial discharges . In this case, it appears that using the blue rayon to extract drinking water samples and comparing the results with the XAD resin extracts we were able to distinguish the mutagenicity caused by industrial contaminants from the halogenated disinfection by-products generated during water treatment.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4737 - 47
Synergistic inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum using ozone followed by free chlorine in natural water; Biswas K et al.; The synergistic effect of sequential exposure to ozone followed by free chlorine on inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts suspended in natural waters was studied in bench-scale batch reactors . Animal infectivity using neonatal CD-1 mice was used to measure oocyst inactivation . The synergistic effect measured in two alkaline (pH 8.1) natural waters was statistically significant but was considerably smaller than previously reported in buffered de-ionized water at pH 6.0 . Temperature, ozone primary treatment level, and water type did not have measurable impacts on the synergistic effect . Efforts to increase the synergistic effect by reducing the pH from 8 to 6 by acid addition were unsuccessful . In the two low alkalinity (pH 6.0) natural waters tested, the measured synergistic effect was greater than in the alkaline waters, but was still less than that measured previously in buffered de-ionized water . It was concluded that the synergistic effect reduction in the natural waters tested was due in part to alkalinity and in part to other unidentified water quality characteristics . Sequential treatment with ozone followed by free chlorine may only be a feasible strategy for achieving synergistic C . parvum inactivation credit for water treatment facilities with natural waters having a low pH (near 6.0).

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4730 - 6
Impact of hydrogen peroxide on nitrite formation during UV disinfection; Sharpless CM et al.; One concern with UV disinfection of water is the production of nitrite when polychromatic UV sources are utilized . Based on previous work, it was hypothesized that a small addition of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) may be useful in controlling nitrite during UV disinfection . However, it was found that H(2)O(2) addition (5 or 10mg/L) during polychromatic UV irradiation of drinking water at doses used for disinfection significantly increases the levels of nitrite produced relative to solutions without H(2)O(2) . Enhancement rates ranged from approximately 15% to 40% depending upon pH and H(2)O(2) concentration; the relative increase in the NO(2)(-) yield was greater at pH 6.5 than at pH 8.3 . The observed effects are tentatively ascribed to a combination of enhanced superoxide production and increased hydroxyl radical scavenging when H(2)O(2) is added . These results indicate that H(2)O(2) cannot be used to control nitrite production during UV disinfection and that enhanced nitrite formation will occur if H(2)O(2) is added during UV water treatment to achieve advanced oxidation of contaminants.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4693 - 702
Reduction of ClO2 demand by ClO2 oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration; Swietlik J et al.; The effective removal of soluble natural organic matter (NOM) during water treatment can significantly decrease the ClO(2) demand of processed water . This can be achieved through the oxidation and/or the removal of NOM . The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of ClO(2) oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration on the final ClO(2) demand of treated water . The study showed the ClO(2) demand to be strongly correlated with the abundance of high molecular fractions of NOM in treated water . As it was shown, this part of NOM was effectively removed during the GAC filtration . Moreover, the pre-treatment of water with ClO(2) considerably increased the total capacity of GAC filters for organic and inorganic (i.e . chlorites) oxidation by-products . Therefore, the oxidation of NOM molecules in conjunction with a very efficient GAC filtration can be successfully employed to control the abundance of high molecular NOM components, and thus the ClO(2) demand of finished water.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4631 - 6
Calcium accumulation on activated carbon deteriorates synthetic organic chemicals adsorption; Lee SH et al.; The accumulation of calcium on biological activated carbon (BAC) and their effects on adsorption of synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) were studied using BAC, which have been operated for 5 (BAC5.0) and 3.5 (BAC3.5) years in a pilot-scale water purification plant, and granular activated carbon (GAC) preloaded with fulvic acid and/or calcium . The major inorganic material accumulated on BAC was calcium . The amounts of calcium on BAC5.0 and BAC3.5 were 36.6 and 29.7 mg g(-1), respectively . Seventy-one percent of calcium existed as calcium carbonate in both BACs . BAC5.0 had higher amount of accumulated calcium than BAC3.5 even though both BACs have already exhausted for NOM in the influent in 1-year operation, suggesting that calcium carbonate gradually accumulated on BAC even after the 3.5 years of operation . The isotherms of GAC preloaded with fulvic acid and/or calcium clearly indicated that the calcium accumulation on GAC reduced adsorption capacity for simazine . The conclusion also confirmed by significant recovery of adsorption capacity of both BACs by acid-washing to remove accumulated calcium from BACs . The difference of adsorption capacity between BAC3.5 and BAC5.0 was caused not only by the difference of adsorbed NOM but also the difference in the amount of accumulated calcium.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4599 - 604
Rapid and economical indicator for evaluating arsenic removal with minimum aluminum residual during coagulation process; Kang M et al.; Detection of various types of contaminants in water treatment plant by sophisticated analytical methods such as inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry requires hours to days to provide the results . Because naturally occurring ultraviolet (UV) active compounds are commonly present in almost all source waters and can be rapidly monitored by UV absorbance at 260 nm (E260), the extent of correlation between the removal efficiency of E260 and the removal efficiency of As(V) with minimum soluble residual Al by coagulation process was investigated . Percentage removals for E260 were well correlated to those of As(V) . When sufficient alum or polyaluminum chloride (PACl) was added for 60-65% removal of E260, 90-95% removal of As(V) was achieved with minimum soluble residual Al regardless of the initial level of turbidity, E260, and As(V) . As E260 analysis is precisely available even by an unskilled plant operator in a few minutes, E260 removal efficiency appears to be the promising economical indicator for monitoring the effectiveness of the coagulation process for the removal of contaminants with minimum residual Al.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(19), 4553 - 60
Endotoxin inactivation by selected drinking water treatment oxidants; Anderson WB et al.; Exposure to endotoxins in treated drinking water can occur through ingestion, dermal abrasions, inhalation of water vapor, intravenous injection or during dialysis . While the risks associated with endotoxin ingestion and entry through dermal abrasions are not well quantified, adverse effects of intravenous injection and dialysis are well known and some studies indicate that inhalation of moisture-laden air may impact human health . This study quantifies the inactivation of endotoxin derived from Escherichia coli O55:B5 by three substances used either as disinfectants or oxidants in drinking water treatment: chlorine, monochloramine and potassium permanganate . Inactivation rates were found to be 1.4, 1.0 and 0.7 endotoxin units (EU)/mL h, for free chlorine, potassium permanganate and monochloramine, respectively . These rates are relatively slow given that contact times in drinking water distribution systems are typically less than 48 h . While small amounts of endotoxin may be removed by oxidation the observed removals are much less than those provided by physical removal processes . The significance of this finding is important for dialysis considerations but is as yet unclear with regard to inhalation, as the risk of inhaling sufficient quantities of endotoxin-containing aerosolized water droplets to adversely affect human health has not yet been adequately quantified.

Nephrol Dial Transplant, 2003 Nov, 18(11), 2354 - 8
Methaemoglobinaemia and haemolysis associated with hydrogen peroxide in a paediatric haemodialysis centre: a warning note; Davidovits M et al.; BACKGROUND: Haemodialysis exposes patients to contaminants in the dialysate . The AAMI standards deal only with two disinfectants, chlorine and chloramine . We report an event of methaemoglobinaemia and haemolysis related to an unsuspected disinfection agent . METHODS: Nine children aged 3-17 years undergoing dialysis after reconstruction of our paediatric dialysis unit developed methaemoglobinaemia of 3.1-11%, with a mean reduction in haemoglobin levels of 11.9 +/- 5.9% (P < 0.001) . Air bubbles were noted in the bloodlines . The water treatment system (WTS) of the dialysis unit is disinfected when necessary by adding concentrated hydrogen peroxide (HP) to the storage tank and circulating it through the re-circulation loop with draining and subsequent flushings . Total chlorine analysis of the water is performed by DPD-iodide colorimetric method . RESULTS: Dialysis water testing yielded a high chloramine concentration in the storage tank and points- of-use stations (3.08 and 2.06 p.p.m., respectively) . However, this finding was not true for the tap water, and it also failed to explain the air bubbles in the dialysis tubing . The concentration of free chlorine was within the recommended range . Further investigation revealed that the WTS was disinfected by the service company during remodelling of the unit, without notification of the hospital staff . Since the DPD-iodide test is not specific, and in effect detects not only total chlorine, but all oxidants capable of oxidizing iodide, we assumed the culprit was residual HP that was inadequately flushed from the water system . CONCLUSIONS: HP used for disinfection of the WTS can pose a serious dialysis risk if not flushed out properly . Total chlorine analysis should be performed before every dialysis session, and positive results should prompt further work-up for other oxidants . The clinical staff must always be involved in decisions regarding any intervention in the dialysis water system.

J Environ Qual, 2003 Sep-Oct, 32(5), 1857 - 64
Phosphorus retention mechanisms of a water treatment residual; Ippolito JA et al.; Water treatment residuals (WTRs) are a by-product of municipal drinking water treatment plants and can have the capacity to adsorb tremendous amounts of P . Understanding the WTR phosphorus adsorption process is important for discerning the mechanism and tenacity of P retention . We studied P adsorbing mechanism(s) of an aluminum-based {Al2(SO4)3 x 14H2O} WTR from Englewood, CO . In a laboratory study, we shook mixtures of P-loaded WTR for 1 to 211 d followed by solution pH analysis, and solution Ca, Al, and P analysis via inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy . After shaking periods, we also examined the solids fraction by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron microprobe analysis using wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (EMPA-WDS) . The shaking results indicated an increase in pH from 7.2 to 8.2, an increase in desorbed Ca and Al concentrations, and a decrease in desorbed P concentration . The pH and desorbed Ca concentration increases suggested that CaCO3 controlled Ca solubility . Increased desorbed Al concentration may have been due to Al(OH)4 formation . Decreased P content, in conjunction with the pH increase, was consistent with calcium phosphate formation or precipitation . The system appeared to be undersaturated with respect to dicalcium phosphate (DCP; CaHPO4) and supersaturated with respect to octacalcium phosphate {OCP; Ca4H(PO4)3 x 2.5H2O} . The Ca and Al increases, as well as OCP formation, were supported by MINTEQA2 modeling . The XRD and EMPA-WDS results for all shaking times, however, suggested surface P chemisorption as an amorphous Al-P mineral phase.

J Environ Qual, 2003 Sep-Oct, 32(5), 1658 - 68
Evaluation of water treatment sludge for ameliorating acid mine waste; Van Rensburg L et al.; This study investigated the liming effect of water treatment sludge on acid mine spoils . The study was conducted with sludge from a water purification plant along the Vaal River catchments in South Africa . The optimum application rate for liming acid spoils and the speed and depth with which the sludge reacted with the mine waste were investigated . Chemical analysis indicated that the sludge is suitable as a liming agent because of its alkaline pH (8.08), high bicarbonate concentration (183.03 mg L(-1)), and low salinity (electrical conductivity = 76 mS m(-1)) . The high cation exchange capacity of 15.47 cmol(c) kg(-1) and elevated nitrate concentration (73.16 mg L(-1)) also increase its value as an ameliorative material . The soluble concentrations for manganese, aluminum, lead, and selenium were high at a pH of 5 although only selenium (0.83 mg L(-1)) warranted some concern . According to experimental results, the application of 10 Mg ha(-1) of sludge to acid gold tailings increased the leach water pH from 4.5 to more than 7.5 and also increased the medium pH from 2.4 to 7.5 . The addition of sludge further reduced the solubility of iron, manganese, copper, and zinc in the ameliorated gold tailings, but increased the electrical conductivity . The liming tempo was highest in the coal discard profile that had a coarse particle size distribution and took the longest to move through the gold tailings that had a fine particle size distribution . Results from this study indicate that the water treatment sludge investigated is suitable as a liming agent for rehabilitation of acid mine waste.

Wei Sheng Yan Jiu, 2003 Jul, 32(4), 377 - 80
{Study on the effect of NaFeEDTA on preventing lead poisoning in rats and its impact on zinc, copper}; Wang J et al.; In order to explore the effect of sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetate (NaFeEDTA) on preventing rats from lead poisoning and reducing the lead toxicity, and at the same time to explore its impact on zinc and copper, sixty Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups including blank control group, model control group, positive control group and three different level NaFeEDTA (high, middle and low) groups . With the exception of the blank control group, which only received double distilled water treatment throughout the experiment, all the other rats were continuously treated with lead solution . At the same time, with the exception of the blank and model control groups, the other four groups were treated with acidi dimercaptosuccinici (DMSA), high, middle and low level NaFeEDTA solutions respectively . At the end of the study, several indicators were determined . The results showed that the hemoglobin levels in the three different level NaFeEDTA groups were significantly higher than those of the other four groups and at the same time the lead levels in blood and organs were lower than those of model group significantly . There were significant reverse correlations between iron supplement and the lead levels in liver, kidney and tibia among the three different level NaFeEDTA groups, and the correlation coefficients were -0.4432, -0.6134 and -0.3878 respectively . There were no significant differences in zinc levels and copper levels between the three level NaFeEDTA groups and the negative control group except the brain zinc levels in the middle and high level NaFeEDTA groups were lower and the kidney copper level in the low level NaFeEDTA group was higher than those of the model control group . It is concluded that the NaFeEDTA can effectively improve hemoglobin level, prevent rats from lead poisoning and reduce the lead toxicity . At the same time, NaFeEDTA does not have significant influence on zinc and copper levels in rats.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(4), 139 - 46
Impacts of separate rejection water treatment on the overall plant performance; Wett B et al.; A separate rejection water treatment appears as a high-tech unit process which might be recommendable only for specific cases of an upgrading of an existing wastewater treatment plant . It is not the issue of this paper to consider a specific separate treatment process itself but to investigate the influence of such a process on the overall plant performance . A plant-wide model has been applied as an innovative tool to evaluate effects of the implemented sidestream strategy on the mainstream treatment . The model has been developed in the SIMBA environment and combines acknowledged mathematical descriptions of the activated sludge process (ASM1) and the anaerobic mesophilic digestion (Siegrist model) . The model's calibration and validation was based on data from 5 years of operating experience of a full-scale rejection water treatment . The impact on the total N-elimination efficiency is demonstrated by detailed nitrogen mass flow schemes including the interactions between the wastewater and the sludge lane . Additionally limiting conditions due to dynamic N-return loads are displayed by the model's state variables.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003, 38(10), 2359 - 68
Development of floating plastic media filtration system for water treatment and wastewater reuse; Chiemchaisri C et al.; Floating plastic media coupled with sand filtration system was applied for treating surface water and secondary effluent from municipal sewage treatment plant . The system employed floating plastic media for the removal of suspended solids in surface water and precipitated phosphorus from secondary effluent of sewage treatment plant . Sand filtration was then used to remove further the suspended solids . For the purposes of wastewater reuse, a zeolite layer was used instead of sand filter to absorb ammonium nitrogen . Application of system for surface water treatment suggested appropriate filtration rate of 5 m3/m2 h . Polyaluminum chloride was found to be the best coagulant with an appropriate plastic and sand bed depth of 40 cm . The system could produce average effluent turbidity and suspended solids of 0.71 NTU and 0.94 mg/L respectively . Average turbidity and suspended solids removal efficiencies were 96.26% and 95.48% with low headloss development of 40.4 cm at the end of 6 h operation period . When applying 1.50 m . floating plastic media bed for the treatment of synthetic raw water, short and long-term turbidity removal efficiencies were 96.79-97.72% and 81.81-94.61% for raw water containing turbidity of 20 and 40 NTU . It could produce the effluent with turbidity less than 5NTU while having less than 1.0 m . headloss . The system was also applied for the secondary effluent treatment . An optimum filtration rate of 5 m3/m2 h was obtained when using plastic and sand bed depth of 60 and 20cm under direct filtration mode . Average turbidity removal was 60.3% and 59.6% after 6 and 48 h of operation . It was also found that 1 m3/m2 h filtration rate and 50:30 cm of plastic:zeolite bed could be used to achieve both ammonium nitrogen and phosphate removal . Suspended solids, turbidity, BOD5, NH4+, and PO4(3-) removal efficiencies were 91.9, 94.6, 95.4, 97.3, and 99.5% respectively after 24 h . As a result, the effluent from the system had average NH4+ and PO4(3-) of 0.5 mg N/L and 0.02 mg P/L.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 135 - 41
Nitrite accumulation in the treatment of wastewaters with high ammonia concentration; Yang W et al.; Different operational parameters of the nitritation process were investigated in both jar tests and pilot scale Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs) . In the laboratory study, 100-1,200 mg N l(-1) of ammonia was used . The pH and temperature were varied . Batch experiments were done on municipal sludge, pectin industrial sludge and sludge from a reject water treatment unit . Ammonia oxidation was observed with relative nitrite accumulations from 2% to 100% and ammonia oxidation rates from 0.01 to 0.58 g N g VSS(-1) d(-1) . The nitritation process and relative nitrite accumulation were highly affected by pH, temperature and the sludge type . pH 8.0-8.5 and temperature 30 degrees C were found favourable for the nitritation . Pilot SBR systems for treating reject water achieved 100% of nitrite accumulation under the operational conditions of pH 7.5-8.0, temperature 30 degrees C and dissolved oxygen (DO) 1.0 mg 1(-1) . Six months of operation revealed that pH regulations were essential to avoid the inhibitions by either free ammonia or nitrous acid . At an unionized ammonia concentration of approximately 20 mg NH3-N l(-1), half of the normal nitritation ability still remained . Total inhibition occurred when the concentration of nitrous acid reached 3.0 mg HNO2-N l(-1) . However, both types of inhibitions were reversible in the SBR with a proper operation control . Stable and controllable nitritation could be achieved in pilot scale.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 97 - 104
Enteric virions and microbial biofilms--a secondary source of public health concern?
Storey MV, Ashbolt NJ.
Through their many sorption sites, microbial biofilms can accumulate both organic and inorganic particulate and colloidal material from bulk water environments . An application of such first principles to the ecology of "biocolloidal" enteric virions would suggest that they too may be concentrated by biofilms in a similar way . Though previous studies have isolated human gastrointestinal (enteric) virions from microbial biofilms, the exact human health significance of this has been neither fully investigated nor completely understood . Through an assessment of the location, accumulation and persistence of model enteric virion (phiX174, MS2 and B40-8 bacteriophages as well as 20 nm fluorescent latex microspheres) within biofilms, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether the interaction of enteric virions with distribution pipe biofilms could provide a secondary source of public health concern to consumers . Model enteric virions were found to be incorporated into biofilms at concentrations representing 1% of those present in the adjacent bulk water environment . A sub-population (0.01%) of these persisted throughout an experimental period of 30 days, inferring their potential to accumulate over time . Furthermore, model enteric virions were partitioned into bacterial microcolonies, environments where biofilm bacteria can persist and re-grow, even in the presence of "acceptable" levels of disinfection . A risk model for enteric virion accumulation and release from distribution pipe biofilms suggested that associated risks may exceed USEPA benchmark values . These findings could have wide-reaching implications in water treatment and distribution strategies, and necessitate a re-appraisal of current water guideline values.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(3), 65 - 72
Removal of trichloroethylene from waste gases via the peroxone process; Van Craeynest K et al.; In dealing with chlorinated organic compounds in waste gases, traditional treatment techniques show some severe shortcomings . Thermal oxidation may lead to the formation of dioxins, active carbon adsorption does not degrade the pollutants and biotechnological treatment is difficult since microorganisms do not always possess efficient degradation pathways for these compounds . These drawbacks explain the growing interest of the waste gas treatment sector for Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) which were initially developed as water treatment techniques . AOPs generate highly reactive hydroxyl radicals that efficiently oxidise organic pollutants . In the peroxone process, this is done by a combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide . In this work, the peroxone process is applied in an oxidative scrubber for the removal of trichloroethylene (TCE) . Rapid oxidation of absorbed TCE in the liquid phase enhances TCE absorption Practically, a gas stream contaminated with TCE is mixed with an ozone loaded gas stream . The mixture is led through a bubble column that is fed with a buffered hydrogen peroxide solution . The effect of different process parameters (flow rates, buffer concentration, pH, hydrogen peroxide/ozone dosage ratio, TCE dosage) on TCE removal was investigated . Depending on the operating conditions, removal efficiencies up to 98% could be attained.

Water Res, 2003 Nov, 37(18), 4425 - 32
The effect of free chlorine on Burkholderia pseudomallei in potable water; Howard K et al.; Chlorine is widely used in public water supplies to provide a disinfection barrier . The effect of chlorine disinfection on the water-borne pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei was assessed using multiple techniques . After exposure to chlorine viable bacteria were undetectable by conventional plate count techniques; however, persistence of B . pseudomallei was verified by flow cytometry and bacteria were recoverable following a simple one-step broth procedure . The minimum residual chlorine concentration and contact time as prescribed by potable water providers in Australia was insufficient to reduce a B . pseudomallei population by more than 2 log(10) . Chlorine had a bacteriostatic effect only on B . pseudomallei; viable bacteria were recovered from water containing up to 1000 ppm free chlorine . This finding has practical implications for water treatment in regions where B . pseudomallei is endemic . Future work to assess the effect of alternative water disinfection processes either singly or in sequence is necessary.

Indian J Environ Health, 2002 Jan, 44(1), 12 - 8
Performance evaluation of water treatment plants based on microfilter technology for rural water supply; Reddy RC et al.; Panchayat Raj Engineering Department (PRED), Government of Andhra Pradesh installed package water treatment plants on a trial basis, in some villages in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh . These plants with a design capacity of 6000-12000 lph were supplied and erected by a firm in Hyderabad . These plants consist of three stage treatment comprising of pulverized quartz filter bed, activated carbon bed and micro filter unit followed by disinfection . At the request of PRED, comprehensive studies were carried on individual plants which includes a detailed appraisal of the performance of the individual components of the plant, infrastructure at the village level for routine O&M of the plants as also views of the community regarding their acceptability of the system . This paper presents the findings and conclusions of the performance evaluation study.

Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2003 Apr, 23(2), 246 - 8
{Study on preparation of lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanometer thin film materials and its photocatalytic activity}; Zheng HL et al.; In this paper, lanthanum-doped TiO2 nanometer film materials coated on glass were prepared in Ti(OBu)4 precursor solutions by sol-gel processing . Transmittance and photocatalytic activity were respectively investigated and tested for these nanometer thin films prepared with different amount of lanthanum (La), different amount of polyethylene glycol (PEG), and different coating layer times . Some reactive mechanisms were also discussed . For one layer La-addition had little effect on the film transmissivity; but the photocatalytic activity was significantly improved due to La-addition . With increasing PEG, the transmittance of the film decreased for one layer film; but its photocatalytic activity did not rise . Increasing layer number did not affect the transmissivity of multilayer film . After coating two times, increasing layer number did not significantly improve the photocatalytic activity . The highest photocatalytic activity and best transmissivity were obtained for two layer TiO2 film when the dosage of lanthanum was 0.5 g and the dosage of polyethylene was 0.2 g in the precursor solutions . These materials will probably be used in the protection of environment, waste water treatment, and air purification.

Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi, 2000 Jun, 20(3), 379 - 80
{Determination of trace Pb and Cd in water treatment reagent by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry}; Zheng E et al.; The optimum conditions for the determination of trace Pb and Cd in water treatment reagent by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry were studied in detail in this paper . The results show that the long and tedious pretreatment process was cut down by calibrating background with D2 lamp and NH4H2PO4 as matrix modifier . The determination limits were 0.65 microgram.L-1 and 0.12 microgram.L-1 for (Pb and Cd) and linear ranges were 0-50 micrograms.L-1, 0-20 micrograms.L-1 for Pb and Cd, respectively . Rate of recovery was 90%-110% . This method is accurate, quick and simple, and can be used successfully to determine actual samples.

Int J Biol Macromol, 2003 Sep, 32(3-5), 121 - 7
DNA aqueous solution used for dialytical removal and enrichment of dioxin derivatives; Liu XD et al.; In the present study, a dialytic method that uses a DNA aqueous solution to remove and enrich dioxins from polluted water was proposed . Circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescent spectra indicated that dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD), dibenzofuran (DF) and biphenyl (BP), which are dioxin derivatives, form complexes with DNA . Their experimental dialytic sorption coefficients were measured by quantifying the concentrations of DD, DF, and BP in aqueous solutions before and after dialysis of the DNA solution, and the values were 2.1x10(5), 1.3x10(5), and 1.5x10(7), respectively . As a simulated water treatment model, DNA solution was dialyzed in an aqueous mixture of DD, DF, and BP for 96h, the HPLC studies showed that the dioxin derivatives have been concentrated in the DNA solution about 200 times . The dialyzed DNA solution was reusable by an extraction with hexane.

Nephrol Dial Transplant, 2003 Aug, 18 Suppl 7, vii21 - 5; discussion vii56
The quality of dialysis water; Pontoriero G et al.; INTRODUCTION: Every week, haemodialysis patients are exposed to approximately 400 l of water used for the production of dialysis fluids which, albeit with the interposition of a semi-permeable artificial membrane, come into direct contact with the bloodstream . It is therefore clearly important to know and monitor the chemical and microbiological purity of dialysis water . METHODS: In this review, we analyse the sources of chemical and microbiological water contamination, and the problems involved in water purification systems and modalities . We also analyse the compliance of dialysis units with the microbiological standards established by the most widely accepted guidelines relating to the quality of dialysis fluids . RESULTS: The risk of chemical contamination is due mainly to the primary pollution of municipal water, whereas the most important microbiological problem is the control of bacterial growth in the water treatment and distribution system . Dialysis water treatment implies various levels of pre-treatment, a final purification module (which, in many cases, is reverse osmosis: RO) and a hydraulic circuit for the distribution of the purified water . RO-based treatment systems produce water of optimal chemical and microbial quality, and so dialysis units need to concentrate on maintaining this quality level in the long term by means of effective maintenance and disinfection strategies . The most widely accepted standards for water purity are those recommended by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation and the European Pharmacopea, which respectively allow bacterial growth of <200 and <100 c.f.u./ml, and an endotoxin concentration of <2 and <0.25 IU/ml . However, a number of multicentre studies have reported that 7-35% of water samples have bacterial growth of >200 c.f.u./ml, and up to 44% have endotoxin levels of >5 IU/ml . CONCLUSIONS: The results of multicentre studies indicate that the microbial quality of dialysis fluids is still a too often neglected problem, particularly as there is evidence of a possible relationship between dialysis fluid contamination and long-term morbidity . The time has now come to take advantage of innovations in water treatment processes and improvements in dialysis machines in order to modify clinical practices and start improvement processes aimed at decreasing the risk of microbial contamination to the minimum, as it has already been successfully done in the case of chemical contamination.

Environ Monit Assess, 2003 Sep, 87(3), 293 - 309
Hydrological influences on the water quality trends in Tamiraparani Basin, South India; Ravichandran S; Water quality variables--Turbidity, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Chlorides and Total Hardness (TH) were monitored at a downstream location in the Tamiraparani River during 1978-1992 . The observations were made at weekly intervals in a water treatment and supply plant using standard methods . Graphical and statistical analyses were used for data exploration, trend detection and assessment . Box-Whisker plots of annual and seasonal changes in variables indicated apparent trends being present in the data and their response to the seasonal influence of the monsoon rainfall . Further, the examination of the median values of the variables indicated that changes in the direction of trend occurred during 1985-1986, especially in pH, EC and TH . The statistical analyses were done using non-parametric methods, the ANCOVA on rank transformed data and the Seasonal Man-Kendall test . The presence of monotonic trend in all the water quality variables was confirmed, however, with independent direction of change . The trend line was fitted by the method of least squares . The estimated values indicated significant increases in EC (28 microS cm(-1)) while significant decreases were observed in turbidity (90 NTU), pH (0.78), and total hardness (23 ppm) in a span of 15 years . The changes induced in river flow by the addition of a stabilizing reservoir, the influence of seasonal and spatial pattern of monsoon rainfall across the river basin and the increased agriculture appear causative factors for the water quality trends seen in the Tamiraparani River system.

Am J Public Health, 2003 Sep, 93(9), 1527 - 33
Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff; Gaffield SJ et al.; OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the scale of the public health risk from stormwater runoff caused by urbanization . METHODS: We compiled turbidity data for municipal treated drinking water as an indication of potential risk in selected US cities and compared estimated costs of waterborne disease and preventive measures . RESULTS: Turbidity levels in other US cities were similar to those linked to illnesses in Milwaukee, Wis, and Philadelphia, Pa . The estimated annual cost of waterborne illness is comparable to the long-term capital investment needed for improved drinking water treatment and stormwater management . CONCLUSIONS: Although additional data on cost and effectiveness are needed, stormwater management to minimize runoff and associated pollution appears to make sense for protecting public health at the least cost.

Water Res, 2003 Oct, 37(17), 4275 - 83
Enhancing Fenton oxidation of TNT and RDX through pretreatment with zero-valent iron; Oh SY et al.; The effect of reductive treatment with elemental iron on the rate and extent of TOC removal by Fenton oxidation was studied for the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) using a completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) . The results support the hypothesis that TNT and RDX are reduced with elemental iron to products that are oxidized more rapidly and completely by Fenton's reagent . Iron pretreatment enhanced the extent of total organic carbon (TOC) removal by approximately 20% and 60% for TNT and RDX, respectively . Complete TOC removal was achieved for TNT and RDX solutions with iron pretreatment under optimal conditions . On the other hand, without iron pretreatment, complete TOC removal of TNT and RDX solutions was not achieved even with much higher H(2)O(2) and Fe(2+) concentrations . Nitrogen was recovered as NH(4)(+) and NO(3)(-) when Fe(0)-treated TNT and RDX solutions were subjected to Fenton oxidation . The bench-scale iron treatment-Fenton oxidation integrated system showed more than 95% TOC removal for TNT and RDX solutions under optimal conditions . These results suggest that the reduction products of TNT and RDX are more rapidly and completely degraded by Fenton oxidation and that a sequential iron treatment-Fenton oxidation process may be a viable technology for pink water treatment.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2003 Aug, 24(8), 575 - 9
A 17-month evaluation of a chlorine dioxide water treatment system to control Legionella species in a hospital water supply; Srinivasan A et al.; OBJECTIVE: To assess the safety and efficacy of a chlorine dioxide water treatment system in controlling Legionella in a hospital water supply . DESIGN: For 17 months following installation of the system, we performed regular water cultures throughout the building, assessed chlorine dioxide and chlorite levels, and monitored metal corrosion . RESULTS: Sites that grew Legionella species decreased from 41% at baseline to 4% (P = .001) . L . anisa was the only species recovered and it was found in samples of both hot and cold water . Levels of chlorine dioxide and chlorite were below Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits for these chemicals in potable water . Further, enhanced carbon filtration effectively removed the chemicals, even at chlorine dioxide levels of more than twice what was used to treat the water . After 9 months, corrosion of copper test strips exposed to the chlorine dioxide was not higher than that of control strips . During the evaluation period, there were no cases of nosocomial Legionella in the building with the system, whereas there was one case in another building . CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that operation of a chlorine dioxide system effectively removed Legionella species from a hospital water supply . Furthermore, we found that the system was safe, as levels of chlorine dioxide and chlorite were below EPA limits . The system did not appear to cause increased corrosion of copper pipes . Our results indicate that chlorine dioxide may hold promise as a solution to the problem of Legionella contamination of hospital water supplies.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2003 Aug, 24(8), 569 - 74
Risk of hospital-acquired legionnaires' disease in cities using monochloramine versus other water disinfectants; Heffelfinger JD et al.; OBJECTIVE: To measure the association between the disinfection of municipal drinking water with monochloramine and the occurrence of hospital-acquired legionnaires' disease (LD) . SETTING: One hundred sixty-six U.S . hospitals . DESIGN: Survey of 459 members of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) for hospital features; endemic- and outbreak-related, hospital-acquired LD; the source of the hospital water supply; and the methods of disinfection used by the hospitals and municipal water treatment plants . RESULTS: SHEA members representing 166 (36%) of 459 hospitals responded; 33 (20%) reported one or more episodes of hospital-acquired LD during the period from 1994 to 1998 and 23 (14%) reported an outbreak of hospital-acquired LD during the period from 1989 to 1998 . Hospitals with an occurrence of hospital-acquired LD had a higher census (median, 319 vs 221; P = .03), more acute care beds (median, 500 vs 376; P = .04), and more intensive care unit beds (median, 42 vs 24; P = .009) than did other hospitals . They were also more likely to have a transplant service (74% vs 42%; P = .001) and to perform surveillance for hospital-acquired disease (92% vs 61%; P = .001) . After adjustment for the presence of a transplant program and surveillance for legionnaires' disease, hospitals supplied with drinking water disinfected with monochloramine by municipal plants were less likely to have sporadic cases or outbreaks of hospital-acquired LD (odds ratio, 0.20; 95% confidence interval, 0.07 to 0.56) than were other hospitals . CONCLUSION: Water disinfection with monochloramine by municipal water treatment plants significantly reduces the risk of hospital-acquired LD.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 Sep, 38(9), 1959 - 70
Estimation of Giardia Ct values at high pH for the Surface Water Treatment Rule; Sivaganesan M et al.; The U.S . Environmental Protection Agency currently recommends Ct (disinfectant concentration multiplied by the exposure time) values to achieve required levels of inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts by different disinfectants including free chlorine . Current guidance covers inactivation levels in the pH range between 6 and 9 . Subsequent to the publication of these criteria, studies on the inactivation kinetics of Giardia cysts by chlorine have been performed at pH levels greater than 9 . It has been shown that the chlorine inactivation process for Giardia cysts is pH dependent . The objective of this paper is to extend the current Ct values for higher pH levels . The Chick-Watson first order kinetics model was used to develop Ct values for pH levels from 6 to 11.5 . A formula is provided to calculate a 100(1 - alpha)% upper confidence bound for these values.

Rev Saude Publica, 2003 Aug, 37(4), 510 - 4 Epub 2003 Aug 20.
{Drinking water in rural farms as a risk factor to human health}; do Amaral LA et al.; OBJECTIVE: To assess the sanitary quality of drinking water in rural farms through counts of microbiological indicators . METHODS: A total of 180 drinking water samples from sources, reservoirs and water from site of consumption were collected in 30 rural farms located in the northeast region of the sate of Sao Paulo . The most probable number of total coliforms, Escherichia coli and mesophilic microorganisms were determined . Also, the presence of protection measures for water supplies wase verified . RESULTS: The study results showed that 90.0% of drinking water samples from sources, 90.0% from reservoirs, and 96.7% from sites of consumption, collected during the rainy season, and 83.3%, 96.7% and 90.0% of samples collected in dry season were below the quality control standards for drinking water . CONCLUSIONS: Drinking water in rural farms was considered a potential human health threat . Preventive measures for protecting water sources and water treatment are necessary to significantly reduce the occurrence of waterborne diseases.

Ultrason Sonochem, 2003 Oct, 10(6), 319 - 23
Potential uses of ultrasound in the biological decontamination of water; Mason TJ et al.; In the past there was a prevailing feeling in industry that power ultrasound would be too expensive to use for water treatment on an industrial scale . This was based on calculations involving the direct scale up of power consumption in small-scale (generally batch) laboratory experiments . In recent times this attitude has changed somewhat as a result of the installation of a number of ultrasonic devices in operational water or sewage treatment plants . In our laboratories we have investigated the decontamination of water under the influence of ultrasound alone and in conjunction with other treatments . The results, particularly when applied to flowing systems, indicate a real future for sonochemistry in water treatment.

Reprod Fertil Dev, 2003, 15(4), 207 - 14
Effects of chronic prenatal ethanol exposure on NMDA receptor number and affinity for {(3)H}MK-801 in the cerebral cortex of the young postnatal and adult guinea-pig; Puri RK et al.; The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that chronic prenatal ethanol exposure (CPEE) produces changes in the number and/or affinity of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the cerebral cortex that are developmental-age-dependent . Timed, pregnant Dunkin-Hartley-strain guinea-pigs received oral intubation of one of the following regimens, given daily as two equally divided doses 2 h apart, from gestational day (GD) 2 to GD 67 (term, ~GD 68): (i) 4 g ethanol kg(-1) maternal bodyweight; (ii) isocaloric sucrose with pair feeding; or (iii) water . Maternal blood ethanol concentration was measured on GD 57 or 58 at 1 h after the daily dose, and was 51.1 +/- 8.5 mM (235 +/- 39 mg dL(-1); n = 8) . At postnatal day (PD) 11 (pre-weaning) and PD 61 (adulthood), body, brain and cerebral cortical weights of the offspring were measured . The number of NMDA receptors and their affinity for {(3)H}MK-801 were measured in a crude cerebral cortical membrane preparation using saturation isotherm analysis to determine the B(max) and K(D) . Chronic prenatal ethanol exposure decreased offspring brain and cerebral cortical weights at PD 11 and PD 61 . At PD 11, there was no CPEE-induced change of {(3)H}MK-801 binding characteristics in the cerebral cortex . At PD 61, both B(max) and K(D) for {(3)H}MK-801 binding to cerebral cortical NMDA receptors were decreased by CPEE compared with the isocaloric sucrose/pair-fed and water treatment groups . Loss of cerebral cortical NMDA receptors and increased affinity of the remaining receptors for {(3)H}MK-801 in the adult guinea-pig, compared with no change in the number or affinity of these receptors in the young postnatal offspring, demonstrated that the effects of CPEE on these ionotropic glutamate receptors are developmental-age-dependent.

Hereditas, 2003, 138(2), 148 - 53
Detachment analysis of the translocated W chromosome shows that the female-specific randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker, female-218, is derived from the second chromosome fragment region of the translocated W chromosome of the sex-limited p(B) silkworm (Bombyx mori ) strain; Yokoyama T et al.; The sex chromosomes of the silkworm, Bombyx mori, are designated ZW for the female and ZZ for the male . We previously characterized a female-specific randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker, designated Female-218, from the translocation-bearing W chromosomes . These W chromosomes contain a region of the second chromosome, which carries visible larval markers of the p loci . We used strain TWPB in which female larvae have black skin due to the p(B) gene (T(W;2)p(B), +p/+p) while male larvae have whitish skin (+p/+p) . To determine whether the Female-218 RAPD marker is derived from the "W region" or a "second chromosome fragment", we induced a detachment of the translocated W chromosome, T(W;2)p(B), by treating the eggs with hot water at an early developmental stage . After hot water treatment, we obtained 27 white female larvae out of 4850 female larvae . The Female-218 RAPD marker was not amplified in 26 out of 27 white female larvae, and was amplified from one white female larva . Moreover, we obtained 11 black male larvae out of 5377 male larvae . Eight out of 11 black male larvae became adult moths, and the Female-218 RAPD marker was amplified from all eight male moths . Examination of the genetic relationship between the Female-218 RAPD marker and the second chromosome fragment of the translocated W chromosome strongly indicates that the Female-218 RAPD marker is amplified from the region of second chromosome fragment of the T(W;2)p(B) chromosome.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 Jul, 38(7), 1259 - 68
Removal of Encephalitozoon intestinalis, calicivirus, and coliphages by conventional drinking water treatment; Gerba CP et al.; The removal of the Microsporidia, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, feline calicivirus and coliphages MS-2, PRD-1, and Fr were evaluated during conventional drinking water treatment in a pilot plant . The treatment consisted of coagulation, sedimentation, and mixed media filtration . Fr coliphage was removed the most (3.21 log), followed by feline calicivirus (3.05 log), E . coli (2.67 log), E . intestinalis (2.47 log), MS-2 (2.51 log) . and PRD-1 (1.85 log) . With the exception of PRD-1 the greatest removal of the viruses occurred during the flocculation step of the water treatment process.

Environ Technol, 2003 Jul, 24(7), 897 - 902
A new technology for the treatment of mercury contaminated water and soils; Zhuang JM et al.; A new technology has been developed for the treatment of contaminated water and soils with lignin derivatives . It has been demonstrated that this technology can be used in the process of removal of high levels of mercury from water, and in the immobilization of leachable mercury in contaminated soils . Lignin derivatives contain an abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups such as phenolic, carboxyl, sulfonyl, alcoholic and enolic structures, which will form lignin-metal macromolecular complexes with high stability through ionic and coordinate covalent bonding . This feature is the basis for the application of lignin derivatives in the removal of metal contaminants from water and in the immobilization of leachable metal in soils or sediments . Tests have confirmed that lignin derivatives are capable of combining with a variety of metal ions including chromium, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and aluminum . In the new water treatment process, lignin derivatives are dissolved in mercury contaminated water to complex mercury in an exceptionally stable form of a lignin-mercury colloid . The lignin-mercury colloid is then coagulated through the addition of a flocculating agent such as ferric chloride . Under optimized conditions, a dean effluent is produced with a residual mercury level of less than 1 microg l(-1), together with a ferric sludge that is not leachable by TCLP, EPA Method 1311 . In the new soil stabilization process, a new solid adsorbent of ferric-lignin is blended with mercury contaminated soil . This solid adsorbent can stabilize the soil by complexing with mercury and, thereby, greatly reduce the TCLP mercury of soil.

Environ Technol, 2003 Jul, 24(7), 867 - 76
Flotation techniques for oily water treatment; Melo MV et al.; The aim of this work is to develop alternative techniques for the treatment of waters heavily contaminated by oil . Furthermore, the treatment system should achieve high removal efficiencies even under unfavorable conditions, when oil is finely dispersed in the water phase and oil droplet sizes range from 5-30 mm and concentrations are between 100 and 300 mg l(-1) . The first experiments were carried out in an induced air flotation system where a flotation column performance was evaluated in batch and continuous operation . The second system investigated in this work focused on the association of centrifugal separation in a hydrocyclone and the flotation operation . The considered system is characterized by the association of these two processes, resulting the set-up in a compact unit (centrifugal flotation system) . The bubbles generation and the droplet-bubble contact are performed through a gas-liquid ejector, while the separation of the phase rich in oil (froth phase) is promoted by a hydrocyclone . In both systems, it was possible to reduce the chemical demand of oxygen by more than 85% and the oil concentration of an emulsion containing droplets with sizes between 10 and 20 mm, using Polyacrilamide as destabilizing agent.

Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2003 May, 24(3), 40 - 4
{Particle entrapment mechanism in deep bed filtration}; Guo J et al.; Theoretical analysis was carried out in this paper to study the interaction in the bed filtration process, and the physico-chemical forces between the filter media and suspended particles in water were presented . Pilot study of the micro-flocculation deep bed filtration was carried out in the No . 9 Potable Water Treatment Plant of Beijing, the interception of particles of 1-10 microns diameter in the 500 cm deep filter bed was analyzed, and the head loss variation during 65 h was monitored . The shear force of 1-10 microns diameter-particle under 24 m/h filtration velocity was calculated . The theoretical physico-chemical forces between the filter bed and suspended particle of 1-10 microns diameter under the condition of -25 mV and -125 mV surface potential was also presented . The theoretical results are reasonably consistent with the experimental data, from which it can be concluded that the operation principles of micro-flocculation deep bed filtration could be analyzed by the physico-chemical interaction between the particles and filter media.

J Appl Microbiol, 2003, 95(3), 591 - 601
Formation of natural biofilms during chlorine dioxide and u.v . disinfection in a public drinking water distribution system; Schwartz T et al.; AIMS: The influence of two disinfection techniques on natural biofilm development during drinking water treatment and subsequent distribution is compared with regard to the supply of a high-quality drinking water . METHODS AND RESULTS: The growth of biofilms was studied using the biofilm device technique in a real public technical drinking water asset . Different pipe materials which are commonly used in drinking water facilities (hardened polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, steel and copper) were used as substrates for biofilm formation . Apart from young biofilms, several months old biofilms were compared in terms of material dependence, biomass and physiological state . Vital staining of biofilms with 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) and the DNA-specific 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining resulted in a significant difference in physiological behaviour of biofilm populations depending on the disinfection technique . Compared with chlorine dioxide disinfection (0.12-0.16 mg l-1), the respiratory activities of the micro-organisms were increased on all materials during u.v . disinfection (u.v.254; 400 J m-2) . The biofilm biocoenosis was analysed by in situ hybridization with labelled oligonucleotides specific for some subclasses of Proteobacteria . Using PCR and additional hybridization techniques, the biofilms were also tested for the presence of Legionella spp., atypical mycobacteria and enterococci . The results of the molecular-biological experiments in combination with cultivation tests showed that enterococci were able to pass the u.v . disinfection barrier and persist in biofilms of the distribution system, but not after chlorine dioxide disinfection . CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that bacteria are able to regenerate and proliferate more effectively after u.v . irradiation at the waterworks, and chlorine dioxide disinfection appears to be more applicative to maintain a biological stable drinking water . SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: As far as the application of u.v . disinfection is used for conditioning of critical water sources for drinking water, the efficiency of u.v . irradiation in natural systems should reach a high standard to avoid adverse impacts on human health.

Int J Environ Health Res, 2003 Sep, 13(3), 261 - 70
Myocarditis: an expected health hazard associated with water resources contaminated with Coxsackie viruses type B; Ali MA et al.; Enteroviruses, especially Coxsackie B viruses (CBVs), are responsible for approximately 50% of cases of viral myocarditis . In the present study, serum samples (160) were collected from acute myocarditis patients at different age groups and 104 samples of the same age groups as a control . Cholesterol, LDH, CPK, and GOT were measured for all serum samples (264) . Also, to study the source of virus transmission, 72 water and 72 wastewater samples were collected from water and wastewater treatment plants at intakes and outlets . Water and wastewater samples were concentrated by filtration through Zeta-plus filter cartridges and reconcentrated by the PEG-6000 precipitation method . Serum, water, and wastewater samples were inoculated in BGM cells for three successive passages . RT-PCR with enterovirus primers was carried out directly for serum samples and for 1st and 3rd cell culture passages . The positive samples were used for neutralization assay using anti-CBV sera pool to determine the CBV followed by neutralization with separate antisera . The results showed that 50 (31.25%) serum samples from acute myocarditis patients and two (1.4%) samples from the controls were positive for enterovirus RT-PCR . For water and wastewater samples enteroviruses were present in 63.8% and 8.3% for intake and outlet of water treatment plants and, 66.6% and 47.2% for intake and outlet of wastewater treatment plants, respectively . The level of CBV serotypes was varied where CBV3 was dominant for all age groups of myocarditis patients and CBV2 and CBV5 were also detected while CBV2 was the main CBV in water samples and CBV2, 3 and 5 were detected in wastewater samples . The integration of cell culture-PCR reduces the time required for virus detection and enhances the sensitivity of the test.

Water Res, 2003 Sep, 37(16), 3815 - 20
Application of nano TiO(2) towards polluted water treatment combined with electro-photochemical method; Chen J et al.; A novel composite reactor was prepared and studied towards the degradation of organic pollutants in this work . In the reactor, a UV lamp was installed to provide energy to excite nano TiO(2), which served as photocatalyst, leading to the production of hole-electron pairs, and a three-electrode electrolysis system was used to accumulate H(2)O(2) which played an important role in the degradation process . The reactor was evaluated by the degradation process of rhodamine 6G (R-6G), and the data obtained in the experiments showed that the combination of the photochemical and electrochemical system raised the degradation rate of R-6G greatly; the working mechanism of the reactor was also discussed in the article . The prepared reactor was also utilized to treat polluted water from dyeing and printing process . After continuous treatment for 0.5h, chemical oxygen demand biochemical oxygen demand, quantity of bacteria and ammonia nitrogen of the polluted water were reduced by 93.9%, 87.6%, 99.9% and 67.5%, respectively, which indicated that the method used here could be used for effective organic dyes degradation.

Ig Sanita Pubbl, 2002 Jan-Apr, 58(1-2), 17 - 24
{The importance of monitoring legionellosis in hospital setting: the case of a Sicilian Hospital}; Pignato S et al.; Hospital-acquired legionellosis is a major problem . In Italy this issue is still underestimated because the reported figures are lower than the actual cases . This is probably due to a lack of diagnosis and monitoring . In Sicily, no cases of hospital-acquired legionellosis were reported in the last few years . In the year 2001, a reference laboratory was set up to help health authorities monitor and prevent hospital-acquired legionellosis . The authors report the data concerning a measure of environmental monitoring and water treatment carried out in a hospital where no legionellosis was ever detected before.

Chemosphere, 2003 Oct, 53(1), 97 - 100
Improvement of thermal hydrolysis rate of dichloroacetic acid using alcohol; Okuda T et al.; Dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) is produced during the oxidation of trichloroethylene . It is also produced in drinking water treatment as a disinfection by-product . DCAA is a problem material, because of its toxicity . The objective of this research is to find the final products and the reaction pathway of the DCAA decomposition by hydrolysis, and to increase the hydrolysis rate . The removal of both chlorine atoms in DCAA structure was achieved with hydrolysis at around 75 degrees C, and the final products were oxalic acid and glycolic acid . The reaction pathway was the production of oxalic acid and glycolic acid from two glyoxylic acid molecules by Cannizzaro reaction after the glyoxylic acid production from dechlorination of DCAA with hydrolysis . The hydrolysis rate of DCAA was increased with the use of 90% ethanol solution as solvent . The activation energy of DCAA was about 80 kJ/mol in it, while it was around 105 kJ/mol in water.

Adv Ren Replace Ther, 2003 Apr, 10(2), 122 - 32
Design and technical adjustment of a water treatment system: 15 years of experience; Martin K et al.; This article gives a technical summary over the development of our dialysis water preparation site covering more than a decade of common effort to improve and secure water quality . We invite the reader to follow us through the experience of 3 major conception changes determined by available localities and resources, operational difficulties, and maintenance as well as progressive technologies and standards . Critical analysis aims to provide information to promote development in this area including details of preventable errors and misconceptions . The findings show that it is possible to achieve higher water quality on regular bases at affordable cost through technical changes, often minor; preventive maintenance; and continual monitoring of all components .

Ground Water, 2003 Jul-Aug, 41(4), 493 - 503
Long-term performance of permeable reactive barriers using zero-valent iron: geochemical and microbiological effects; Wilkin RT et al.; Geochemical and microbiological factors that control long-term performance of subsurface permeable reactive barriers were evaluated at the Elizabeth City, North Carolina, and the Denver Federal Center, Colorado, sites . These ground water treatment systems use zero-valent iron filings (Peerless Metal Powders Inc.) to intercept and remediate chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds at the Denver Federal Center (funnel-and-gate system) and overlapping plumes of hexavalent chromium and chlorinated hydrocarbons at Elizabeth City (continuous wall system) . Zero-valent iron at both sites is a long-term sink for carbon, sulfur, calcium, silicon, nitrogen, and magnesium . After about four years of operation, the average rates of inorganic carbon (IC) and sulfur (S) accumulation are 0.09 and 0.02 kg/m2/year, respectively, at Elizabeth City where upgradient waters contain <400 mg/L of total dissolved solids (TDS) . At the Denver Federal Center site, upgradient ground water contains 1000 to 1200 mg/L TDS and rates of IC and S accumulation are as high as 2.16 and 0.80 kg/m2/year, respectively . At both sites, consistent patterns of spatially variable mineral precipitation and microbial activity are observed . Mineral precipitates and microbial biomass accumulate the fastest near the upgradient aquifer-Fe0 interface . Maximum net reductions in porosity due to the accumulation of sulfur and inorganic carbon precipitates range from 0.032 at Elizabeth City to 0.062 at the Denver Federal Center (gate 2) after about four years . Although pore space has been lost due the accumulation of authigenic components, neither site shows evidence of pervasive pore clogging after four years of operation.

J Hypertens, 2003 Aug, 21(8), 1513 - 8
The anti-oxidant Tempol reverses and partially prevents adrenocorticotrophic hormone-induced hypertension in the rat; Zhang Y et al.; OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of the antioxidant Tempol on prevention and reversal of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)-induced hypertension in the rat, a model of hypertension characterized by nitric oxide deficiency . METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 10 in each group) were treated with either saline or ACTH (0.2 mg/kg per day, s.c.) for 12 days . Tempol (1 mmol/l in drinking water) treatment was started on either day 8 (T8) of ACTH or saline treatment (reversal study), or 4 days prior to ACTH or saline treatment (prevention study) . Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured using tail-cuff sphygmomanometry . Plasma F2-isoprostanes, a marker of oxidative stress, were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . RESULTS: ACTH increased SBP (mean +/- SEM: 119 +/- 5 to 147 +/- 7 mmHg, P < 0.0005) and plasma F2-isoprostane concentration (8.4 +/- 1.2 saline versus 12.9 +/- 1.6 nmol/l ACTH, P < 0.05) . Tempol alone did not alter SBP, but administration of Tempol on T8 reversed ACTH-induced hypertension (from 134 +/- 4 T8 to 118 +/- 3 mmHg, P < 0.005) . Tempol pre-treatment partially prevented ACTH-induced hypertension (123 +/- 2 mmHg, P' < 0.05) . However, Tempol had no effect on F2-isoprostane concentrations at the dose used in this study . CONCLUSIONS: ACTH-induced hypertension in the rat is associated with increased oxidative stress . Tempol treatment reversed, and pretreatment partially prevented ACTH-induced hypertension, independent of improvement in systemic oxidative stress.

Chemosphere, 2003 Sep, 52(10), 1797 - 805
Optimizing electron spin resonance detection of hydroxyl radical in water; Cheng SA et al.; The parameters affecting the electron spin resonance (ESR) detection of hydroxyl free radical in water are studied and optimized . The hydroxyl radical is generated by the Fenton reaction with iron (II) ammonium sulfate and hydrogen peroxide reacting in a phosphate buffer using N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenylnitron as the spin trap . The concentrations of Fe(2+), H(2)O(2), and phosphate buffer are the parameters studied . The Taguchi method and the orthogonal experiment design were used to evaluate the effects of these parameters on the ESR signal intensity . By the analysis of the signal-to-noise ratio and the analysis of variance, the order of importance of the various parameters on the hydroxyl radical formation is determined for optimal ESR detection of hydroxyl radical . The results will help the development of water purification technologies using hydroxyl free radical as a green oxidant.

Water Res, 2003 Sep, 37(15), 3622 - 31
Effect of turbulent gas-liquid contact in a static mixer on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst inactivation by ozone; Craik SA et al.; Static mixers may be used to dissolve gaseous ozone in water treatment facilities in order to provide protection against the waterborne parasite Cryptosporidium parvum . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of a brief exposure to turbulent gas-liquid mixing conditions in a static mixer on inactivation of C . parvum oocysts by ozone . Inactivation measured in an ozone contacting apparatus that employed a static mixer for ozone dissolution was compared to predictions based on a previously published kinetic model of C . parvum inactivation by dissolved ozone in gently stirred batch reactors . Although initial contact in the static mixer had no immediate effect on the oocysts, a 20% increase in the rate of inactivation during subsequent contact with dissolved ozone was observed . Increasing the degree of turbulence within the static mixer did not yield additional inactivation . Use of static mixers for dissolution of ozone in drinking water treatment systems may provide limited enhancement of C . parvum inactivation by dissolved ozone.

Chemosphere, 2003 Sep, 52(9), 1441 - 50
Chemical and microbiological qualities of The East River (Dongjiang) water, with particular reference to drinking water supply in Hong Kong; Ho KC et al.; Currently, about 80% of drinking water in Hong Kong is abstracted from The East River (Dongjiang) that is located in the mainland side of China . Literature records and monitoring results of 2000-2001 confirmed that the lower section of the Dongjiang had been contaminated by organic and inorganic pollutants . Statistical analyses showed that the increases of total cadmium, copper and zinc in the surface layer of sediment of Hong Kong reservoirs from 1994 to 2001 were positively correlated (significant at p<0.05) with those in the surface layer of sediments of the lower Dongjiang . Recent microbiological survey revealed that pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Vibro spp., Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum appeared occasionally in water samples of the Dongjiang and Hong Kong reservoirs . While analytical results found that currently most of the heavy metals, trace organics and microbes were removed by the drinking water treatment plants in Hong Kong, the long-term health risk of drinking water contamination should not be overlooked . The Water Supplies Department of Hong Kong is recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring program to cover pathogenic bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(10), 155 - 62
Process water treatment at the Ranger uranium mine, Northern Australia; Topp H et al.; The conceptual development and piloting of an innovative water treatment system for process water produced by a uranium mine mill is described . The process incorporates lime/CO2 softening (Stage 1), reverse osmosis (Stage 2) and biopolishing (Stage 3) to produce water of quality suitable for release to the receiving environment . Comprehensive performance data are presented for each stage . The unique features of the proposed process are: recycling of the lime/CO2 softening sludge to the uranium mill as a neutralant, the use of power station off-gas for carbonation, the use of residual ammonia as the pH buffer in carbonation; and the recovery and recycling of ammonia from the RO reject stream.

Gig Sanit, 2003 May-Jun, (3), 11 - 4
{The evaluation of effluent water toxicity for the activated sludge in water purification facilities}; Dobrynina LF et al.; The condition of activated sludge, which predetermines the efficiency of functioning of purification facilities, depends to a great extent on a toxicity degree of waste-waters coming for purification . The results of a study of toxicity of effluents of an industrial enterprise by using the methods of the chemical-and-analytic and toxicological monitoring are described in the article . The conducted investigations made it possible to specify an effluents' flow, which is most toxic for the activated-sludge microorganisms, for the purpose of its further localization.

J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jul 4, 101(1), 43 - 53
Modified dissolved organic matter fractionation technique for natural water; Marhaba TF et al.; A technique to fractionate dissolved organic materials (DOMs) from low DOM water (<5mg/l) was developed by using triple columns of DAX-8 adsorption resin, one column of AG-MP-50 cationic resin, and another column of WA 10 weak anionic resin in sequence . The procedure was then applied to fractionate water samples obtained at various sampling locations throughout two surface water treatment plants (WTPs) in central New Jersey to study its effectiveness, DOM occurrence, and variation along treatment units . The treatment plants utilize different treatment methods, hence producing variability in DOM fractions suitable for examining the procedure's effectiveness . This procedure was compared with current fractionation protocols and proved to be accurate in fractionation of low DOM water.

Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2003, 10(3), 183 - 7
International standardization of water analysis: basis for comparative assessment of water quality; Schmidt S; The efficiency of a water treatment program or a water monitoring program can be checked only if it is accompanied by water analysis procedures allowing meaningful statements on water quality . Meaningful statements do not only include high accuracy, but high precision as well . With high precision values, good repeatability and reproducibility is aimed for . Repeatability and reproducibility may either be monitored by regular inter-laboratory trials, without prescribing a distinct analytical method, or by applying a standardized method which has undergone thorough checks concerning its reliability and efficiency . The article presents the structure of the ISO, CEN and DIN standardization work in water analysis.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 69(7), 3979 - 85
Chlorine inactivation of adenovirus type 40 and feline calicivirus; Thurston-Enriquez JA et al.; Ct values, the concentration of free chlorine multiplied by time of contact with virus, were determined for free-chlorine inactivation experiments carried out with chloroform-extracted (dispersed) and non-chloroform-extracted (aggregated) feline calicivirus (FCV), adenovirus type 40 (AD40), and polio virus type 1 (PV-1) . Experiments were carried out with high and low pH and temperature conditions . Ct values were calculated directly from bench-scale free-chlorine inactivation experiments and from application of the efficiency factor Hom model . For each experimental condition, Ct values were higher at pH 8 than at pH 6, higher at 5 degrees C than at 15 degrees C, and higher for dispersed AD40 (dAD40) than for dispersed FCV (dFCV) . dFCV and dAD40 were more sensitive to free chlorine than dispersed PV-1 (dPV-1) . Cts for 2 log inactivation of aggregated FCV (aFCV) and aggregated PV-1 (aPV-1) were 31.0 and 2.8 orders of magnitude higher than those calculated from experiments carried out with dispersed virus . Cts for 2 log inactivation of dFCV and dAD40 in treated groundwater at 15 degrees C were 1.2 and 13.7 times greater than in buffered-demand-free (BDF) water experiments at 5 degrees C . Ct values listed in the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Guidance Manual were close to, or lower than, Ct values generated for experiments conducted with dispersed and aggregated viruses suspended in BDF water and for dispersed viruses suspended in treated groundwater . Since the state of viruses in water is most likely to be aggregated and associated with organic or inorganic matter, reevaluation of the EPA Guidance Manual Ct values is necessary, since they would not be useful for ensuring inactivation of viruses in these states . Under the tested conditions, dAD40, dFCV, aFCV, dPV-1, and aPV-1 particles would be inactivated by commonly used free chlorine concentrations (1 mg/liter) and contact times (60 to 237 min) applied for drinking water treatment in the United States.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 69(7), 3819 - 25
Influence of surface characteristics on the stability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts; Butkus MA et al.; Microelectrophoresis is a common technique for probing the surface chemistry of the Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst . Results of previous studies of the electrophoretic mobility of C . parvum oocysts in which microelectrophoresis was used are incongruent . In this work we demonstrated that capillary electrophoresis may also be used to probe the surface characteristics of C . parvum oocysts, and we related the surface chemistry of C . parvum oocysts to their stability in water . Capillary electrophoresis results indicated that oocysts which were washed in a phosphate buffer solution had neutrally charged surfaces . Inactivation of oocysts with formalin did not influence their electrophoretic mobility, while oocyst populations that were washed in distilled water consisted of cells with both neutral and negative surface charges . These results indicate that washing oocysts in low-ionic-strength distilled water can impart a negative charge to a fraction of the oocysts in the sample . Rapid coagulation experiments indicated that oocysts did not aggregate in a 0.5 M NaCl solution; oocyst stability in the salt solution may have been the result of Lewis acid-base forces, steric stabilization, or some other factor . The presence of sucrose and Percoll could not be readily identified on the surface of C . parvum oocysts by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, suggesting that these purification reagents may not be responsible for the stability of the uncharged oocysts . These findings imply that precipitate enmeshment may be the optimal mechanism of coagulation for removal of oocysts in water treatment systems . The results of this work may help elucidate the causes of variation in oocyst surface characteristics, may ultimately lead to improved removal efficiencies in full-scale water treatment systems, and may improve fate and transport predictions for oocysts in natural systems.

Risk Anal, 2003 Jun, 23(3), 627 - 39
The financial management of catastrophic flood risks in emerging-economy countries; Kunreuther HC et al.; This article examines the potential of pre- and post-disaster instruments for funding disaster response and recovery and for creating incentives for flood loss mitigation in countries with emerging or transition economies . As a concrete case, we discuss the disaster recovery arrangements following the 1997 flood disaster in Poland . We examine the advantages and limitations of hedging instruments, which are instruments for transferring the risk to investors either through insurance or capital market-based securities . We compare these mechanisms with financing instruments whereby the government sets aside funds prior to a disaster or taps its own funding sources after the event occurs . We show how hedging instruments can be designed to create incentives for the mitigation of damage to public infrastructure using the flood proofing of a water-treatment plant on the hypothetical Topping River as an illustrative example . We conclude that hedging instruments can be an attractive alternative to financing instruments that have been traditionally used in the poorer, emerging-economy countries to fund disaster recovery . Since very poor countries are likely to have difficulty paying the price of protection prior to a disaster, we suggest that international lending institutions consider innovations for subsidizing these payments.

J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jun 27, 100(1-3), 131 - 46
Enhancing phosphate removal from wastewater by using polyelectrolytes and clay injection; Ozacar M et al.; Aluminum sulfate, alum, is a common chemical coagulant used for coagulation . Recently, polymers have been utilized in coagulation/flocculation processes for water purification . In this study, the ability of two organic polymers, tannin (natural polyelectrolyte) and AN913 (synthetic anionic polyelectrolyte), and clay to act as coagulant aids was tested, in the removal of phosphate from synthetic wastewater . Contaminants in synthetic waters were coagulated using alum, alum+clay, alum+tannin, alum+AN913, alum+tannin+clay and alum+AN913+clay . Alum together with polymers as coagulant aids yielded a significant improvement in phosphate removal compared with alum alone, for initial phosphate concentrations of 5-15 mg/l PO(4)(3-) . The use of clay and polyelectrolytes improved the efficiency of phosphate removal and lowered the required alum dose . Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used for the identification and characterization of the aluminum species formed during dephosphorization of the synthetic wastewater with and without tannin, AN913 and clay . Evidence from FTIR spectroscopy showed the formation of aluminum hydroxyphosphate, hydroxy-Al-tannate and aluminum complexes containing phosphorus, tannin and AN913.

J Hazard Mater, 2003 Jun 27, 100(1-3), 117 - 30
Comparison of spectral fluorescent signatures-based models to characterize DOM in treated water samples; Bengraine K et al.; Statistical procedures enable a multivariate analysis of the measurements to identify specific characteristics of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) fractions in raw natural water, including the concentrations . In this work, three already established models were used to predict the concentrations of fractions of DOM from spectral fluorescent signatures (SFSs): a general linear regression (GLR), loadings and scores of a principal components analysis (PCA), and a partial least squares regression (PLS) . Details about the method undertaken to prepare the fractions were given . Water samples from surface water treatment plants in New Jersey were used for the testing . In all cases, PLS have shown much better biases and accuracies than GLR and PCA models . Hydrophilic neutral, however, showed poor performances (bias 33%) due to the isolation technique used . Recommendations were provided in order to improve the DOM characterization through SFS, which linked to PLS make a powerful and cost-effective surrogate parameter to characterize DOM.

Water Res, 2003 Aug, 37(14), 3367 - 78
Pretreatment for membrane water treatment systems: a laboratory study; Wend CF et al.; The goal of the work was to determine if biological treatment of water containing soil-derived humic substances has the potential for reducing the fouling of membranes used in water treatment . Laboratory scale biological filters containing biologically active carbon or iron oxide coated sand were fed humic-laden water with or without prechlorination . This stream was split, with half being further treated by microfiltration . Treated water was assessed for total organic carbon removal and biofouling potential using a glass bead assay and membrane assay for total cell counts, fouling layer thickness, and flux reduction . A combination of these assays provided more insight than any single measurement . Compared to untreated control water, biological treatment was capable of reducing downstream fouling of membrane systems . For example, fouling layer thickness was reduced by half after biological treatment, and cell counts were reduced four- to five-fold . Biological treatment coupled with microfiltration provided the best reduction of fouling, while prechlorination did not appear to impact the process . These results suggest that biological treatment may be valuable in reducing membrane fouling while reducing the amount of disinfectants used in pretreatment.

Water Res, 2003 Aug, 37(14), 3341 - 50
Effects of raw water conditions on solution-state aluminum speciation during coagulant dilution; Exall KN et al.; The speciation of aluminum in solutions of alum and various prehydrolyzed, aluminum-based water treatment coagulants was investigated by 27Al NMR at 5 degrees C and 25 degrees C . Alum solutions were seen to contain only mononuclear species including an AlSO4(+) complex, while the prehydrolyzed coagulant solutions contained polynuclear aluminum species, as well . The relative proportions of both polynuclear species and AlSO4(+) complex decreased in cold water . The presence of organic matter had little effect on the speciation of aluminum in diluted alum, but markedly reduced the relative proportion of the tridecamer species in the prehydrolyzed coagulant solutions . The relationship between Al speciation in the coagulants and organic matter removal during jar tests was considered, and the possible role of sulfate in both the formation of the tridecamer species and the effect of organic matter on coagulation efficiency was discussed.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(9), 77 - 84
The fate of estrogenic compounds in the aquatic environment: sorption onto organic colloids; Yamamoto H et al.; In this study, sorption of some estrogens and estrogenic compounds onto several organic colloids was examined using fluorescence quenching techniques . Selected organic colloids included humic substances of several sources, Aldrich humic acid (AHA), Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA), Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA), and Nordic fulvic acid (NFA) . Polysaccharides, alginic acid (AA) and dextran (Dex), and tannic acid (TA) were also selected . 17beta-estradiol (E2), 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EES), and estriol (E3) were selected as estrogens . Nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP), and dibutylphthalate (DBP) were selected as estrogenic compounds . For most of the selected compounds, the sorption coefficients were in the order of TA > humic acids (SRHA or AHA) > fulvic acids (NFA or SRFA) > AA . The smallest or no significant sorption onto dextran was found for selected estrogens and estrogenic compounds . Comparing those compounds, neither a significant trend nor linear correlation with Log K(ow) was found . The resulting sorption coefficients for humic substances and TA suggested approximately 15 to 50% of the estrogens and estrogenic compounds were bound in typical natural water of 5 mg TOC/L and significant effects on the removal of them by water treatment processes, toxicity, or bioavailability were suggested.

Am J Kidney Dis, 2003 Jul, 42(1 Suppl), 66 - 70
Equipment and water treatment considerations for the provision of quotidian home hemodialysis; Mehrabian S et al.; BACKGROUND: Whereas clinical benefits of more frequent hemodialysis (HD) treatment are well documented, little information is available about technical aspects involved in setting up a patient's home for home HD . Technical considerations include the home infrastructure, as well as required plumbing modifications and electrical hook-ups . METHODS: Twenty home HD installations were supported for the London Daily/Nocturnal Hemodialysis Study . The Fresenius 2008H (Fresenius Medical Care, North America, Lexington, MA) HD machine was used for all home HD installations in conjunction with a Service Deionization Tank (SDI) water treatment system composed of pretreatment, purification, and posttreatment components . To ensure that SDI systems provided high-quality water and dialysate, standard bacteriological testing was performed throughout the study, and patient serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were tracked as an indicator of nonspecific inflammation . RESULTS: The annual number of hours of work required for each home HD installation and service/maintenance was approximately 75 and 58 hours, respectively . Water quality proved high because there were only 4 occurrences of failed endotoxin and bacterial tests; all were subsequently retested and provided satisfactory results . Serum CRP levels showed no significant difference comparing home HD patients with conventional in-center HD control patients . CONCLUSION: Although support of 20 home HD installations was economically feasible within the constraints of the London Health Sciences Centre Department of Biomedical Engineering, resources were strained by the final year of the study . This suggests that any sustained growth beyond the current study design may require a review of staffing, resources, and model of service delivery needs.

Community Dent Health, 2003 Jun, 20(2), 94 - 9
Mapping caries prevalence and water distribution in Wales-- Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority as a case study; Morgan MZ et al.; STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate the use of mapping in targeting water fluoridation to areas of high need in lechyd Morgannwg Health Authority, as defined by the upper quintile of the distribution of the percentage with dmft > 0 in dental planning areas . DESIGN: Data from the 1997/98 childhood dental epidemiological survey and the Welsh Water Company water supply zones (as at 1997) were plotted . Maps were generated to identify the relationship between water supply areas, water supply sources and areas of high caries prevalence . SETTING: Maps focussed upon one Welsh health authority, Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority . Examinations for the childhood epidemiology programme took place in schools . PARTICIPANTS: 5-year-old children examined in the 1997/98 survey . MAIN RESULTS: Data presented by very different geographical boundaries were compared without having to carry out complex mathematical transformations . It was possible to quickly identify areas of Iechyd Morgannwg Health Authority with high levels of oral disease, the associated water supply zones and their water treatment centres with a view to possible future targeting of fluoridation . The maps identify the possibility of dilution, when a particular water supply zone was served by more than one treatment works . CONCLUSIONS: This technique enables disparate and complex data bases to be combined enabling visual analysis of the results . The maps facilitate decision making as to the most beneficial areas to fluoridate . The results will be of value in determining the feasibility and targeting of water fluoridation in Wales.

Sci Total Environ, 2003 Jul 20, 311(1-3), 135 - 49
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface and treated waters of Louisiana, USA and Ontario, Canada; Boyd GR et al.; A newly developed analytical method was used to measure concentrations of nine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in samples from two surface water bodies, a sewage treatment plant effluent and various stages of a drinking water treatment plant in Louisiana, USA, and from one surface water body, a drinking water treatment plant and a pilot plant in Ontario, Canada . The analytical method provides for simultaneous extraction and quantification of the following broad range of PPCPs and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: naproxen; ibuprofen; estrone; 17beta-estradiol; bisphenol A; clorophene; triclosan; fluoxetine; and clofibric acid . Naproxen was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 81-106 ng/l and Louisiana and Ontario surface waters at 22-107 ng/l . Triclosan was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 10-21 ng/l . Of the three surface waters sampled, clofibric acid was detected in Detroit River water at 103 ng/l, but not in Mississippi River or Lake Pontchartrain waters . None of the other target analytes were detected above their method detection limits . Based on results at various stages of treatment, conventional drinking-water treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation) plus continuous addition of powdered activated carbon at a dosage of 2 mg/l did not remove naproxen from Mississippi River waters . However, chlorination, ozonation and dual media filtration processes reduced the concentration of naproxen below detection in Mississippi River and Detroit River waters and reduced clofibric acid in Detroit River waters . Results of this study demonstrate that existing water treatment technologies can effectively remove certain PPCPs . In addition, our study demonstrates the importance of obtaining data on removal mechanisms and byproducts associated with PPCPs and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water and sewage treatment processes.

Cytokine, 2003 Mar 7, 21(5), 214 - 23
Neutrophil migration induced by IL-8-activated mast cells is mediated by CINC-1; Ramos CD et al.; The aim of this study was to characterize the mediators released by mast cells responsible for IL-8-induced neutrophil migration . It was observed that IL-8 induces a dose-dependent neutrophil migration into peritoneal cavity of rats, but not into air-pouch cavity in which resident mast cells are not present . The transference of peritoneal mast cells to the air-pouch renders this cavity responsive to IL-8 . The neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 into the peritoneal cavity was not observed when the peritoneal-resident mast cells were depleted by compound 48/80 or distilled water treatment . Confirming the importance of mast cells, IL-8-stimulated mast cells supernatant induced significant neutrophil migration when injected into peritoneal and air-pouch cavities . The IL-8-induced neutrophil migration was observed not to be dependent on LTB(4), prostaglandins or TNF-alpha, since MK886, indomethacin or thalidomide were unable to block the IL-8-induced neutrophil accumulation 'in vivo' or the release of neutrophil chemotactic factor "in vitro" by IL-8-stimulated mast cells . However, dexamethasone, an inhibitor of the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, blocked the neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 "in vivo" and also inhibited the release of the neutrophil chemotactic factor by IL-8-stimulated mast cells . Moreover, the incubation of IL-8-stimulated mast cells supernatant with antibody against cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 (CINC-1), but not against TNF-alpha or IL-1beta, inhibited its neutrophil chemotactic activity . Furthermore, we found a significant amount of CINC-1 in this supernatant . In conclusion, we demonstrated that the neutrophil migration induced by IL-8 is dependent on CINC-1 release from mast cells.

Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jul, 5(7), 592 - 8
An immunomagnetic separation-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IMS-RT-PCR) test for sensitive and rapid detection of viable waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum; Hallier-Soulier S et al.; The public health problem posed by the waterborne parasite Cryptosporidium parvum incited the water supply industry to develop very accurate analytical tools able to assess the presence of viable oocysts in drinking water . In this study, we report the development of a viability assay for C . parvum oocysts based on immunomagnetic separation and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IMS-RT-PCR) . The detection limit of the IMS-RT-PCR assay, which targets the hsp70 heat shock-induced mRNA, was in the range of ten viable oocysts per 100-l tap water samples . Purified Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were exposed to heating, freezing and three chemical disinfection treatments namely, chlorination, chlorine dioxide treatment and ozonation under conventional doses used in water treatment plants, then detected by IMS-PCR and IMS-RT-PCR . The results obtained by IMS-PCR showed that none of the treatments had an effect on oocyst detection . The inactivation of oocysts by boiling resulted in no RT-PCR signal . Chlorine as well as chlorine dioxide did not influence oocyst viability as determined by IMS-RT-PCR . Ozone more effectively inactivated oocysts . The IMS-RT-PCR assay in conjunction with IMS-PCR marks the development of a combined detection and viability test which can be used for drinking water quality control as well as for reliable evaluation of treatment efficiency.

Ann Ist Super Sanita, 2003, 39(1), 111 - 23
{Indicators for marine environment: a preliminary application of an integrated approach}; Melley A; A draft set of indicators was selected to make a state assessment of Italian coastal environment, based upon DPSIR scheme (driving, pressure, state, impact, response), a method which can describe different components of complex environmental systems . The selected indicators are the followings: population and tourism (driving); manufacturing, potential organic loads, trophic loads, maritime transport, fishing fleet, fishing intensity, maricolture (pressure); trophic index TRIX, microbiological quality index IQB (state); bathing water quality (impact); waste water treatment budget, register of sewers, protected areas (response) . A brief description is presented for each indicator, in relation to their most important features, construction modalities and environmental meaning.

Ann Chim, 2003 Apr, 93(4), 347 - 52
The artificial water cycle: emergy analysis of waste water treatment; Bastianoni S et al.; The artificial water cycle can be divided into the phases of water capture from the environment, potabilisation, distribution, waste water collection, waste water treatment and discharge back into the environment . The terminal phase of this cycle, from waste water collection to discharge into the environment, was assessed by emergy analysis . Emergy is the quantity of solar energy needed directly or indirectly to provide a product or energy flow in a given process . The emergy flow attributed to a process is therefore an index of the past and present environmental cost to support it . Six municipalities on the western side of the province of Bologna were analysed . Waste water collection is managed by the municipal councils and treatment is carried out in plants managed by a service company . Waste water collection was analysed by compiling a mass balance of the sewer system serving the six municipalities, including construction materials and sand for laying the pipelines . Emergy analysis of the water treatment plants was also carried out . The results show that the great quantity of emergy required to treat a gram of water is largely due to input of non renewable fossil fuels . As found in our previous analysis of the first part of the cycle, treatment is likewise characterised by high expenditure of non renewable resources, indicating a correlation with energy flows.

J Environ Qual, 2003 May-Jun, 32(3), 1053 - 7
Effects of prolonged irrigation with treated municipal effluent on runoff rate; Agassi M et al.; The use of domestic effluents for the irrigation of crops has been widespread in Israel for the past 30 years . The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the standardized domestic effluents ranges between 4 and 6 . According to the literature, when soils with SAR levels of 4 to 6 are exposed to direct raindrop impact they are subjected to enhanced aggregate disintegration, leading to sealing processes of the soil surface and subsequent increased runoff and soil erosion . However, these phenomena were not observed in the laboratory and field experiments of this study . On the other hand, a rapid decrease of the soil SAR to its initial values was observed, in laboratory and fieldwork, once the soil was subjected to a simulated rainstorm of distilled water (laboratory) or natural rainstorms (field plots) . We can conclude that the process of SAR increase during irrigation with standardized effluent water is reversible . Further investigation in this direction can lead to recommendations regarding the necessary levels of domestic sewage water purification in correlation with soil types, climatic conditions, and hazards to tap water aquifers.

Am J Infect Control, 2003 Jun, 31(4), 243 - 54
Disinfection and the prevention of infectious disease; Cozad A et al.; This article reviews published literature to determine the role environmental disinfection plays in the prevention of infectious disease . Health benefits from disinfection have been established through studies of applications such as critical instrument sterilization, water treatment, and food production . Guidelines by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene acknowledge the incidence of disease due to insufficient disinfection and that one of the means for prevention of disease is through proper disinfection . Studies conducted in day care centers, long-term care facilities, and laboratories show that disinfectants containing a variety of active ingredients demonstrated efficacy against a broad spectrum of pathogens and interrupted microbial transmission and that the use of disinfectants results in public health benefits.

ScientificWorldJournal, 2002 Apr 18, 2, 1036 - 9
Genotoxicity and mutagenicity of suspended particulate matter of river water and waste water samples; Reifferscheid G et al.; Suspended particulate matter of samples of river water and waste water treatment plants was tested for genotoxicity and mutagenicity using the standardized umu assay and two versions of the Ames microsuspension assay . The study tries to determine the entire DNA-damaging potential of the water samples and the distribution of DNA-damaging substances among the liquid phase and solid phase . Responsiveness and sensitivity of the bioassays are compared.

ScientificWorldJournal, 2001 Nov 22, 1 Suppl 2, 745 - 9
Merging nitrogen management and renewable energy needs; Wilson E et al.; The ARBRE (ARable Biomass Renewable Energy) project, the first large-scale wood-fueled electricity generating plant in the U.K., represents a significant development in realising British and European policy objectives on renewable energy . The plant is fueled by a mix of wood from short rotation coppice (SRC) and forest residues . Where feasible, composted/conditioned sewage sludge is applied to coppice sites to increase yields and improve soil structure . In the Yorkshire Water region, typical total N:P:K composition of composted/conditioned sludge is 2.9:3.8:0.3, respectively . Sludge application is calculated on the basis of total nitrogen (N) content to achieve 750 kg N ha(-1), for 3 years" requirement . Willow coppice forms a dense, widely spaced, root network, which, with its long growing season, makes it an effective user of nutrients . This, in combination with willow"s use as a nonfood, nonfodder crop, makes it an attractive route for the recycling of sewage sludge in the absence of sea disposal, banned under the EC Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD) . Further work is required on the nutritional requirements of SRC in order to understand better the quantities of sludge that can be applied to SRC without having a detrimental impact on the environment . This paper suggests the source of N rerouting under the UWWTD and suggests the likely expansion of SRC as an alternative recycling pathway.

ScientificWorldJournal, 2001 Apr 04, 1, 39 - 43
First derivative UV spectra of surface water as a monitor of chlorination in drinking water treatment; Zitko V; Many countries require the presence of free chlorine at about 0.1 mg/l in their drinking water supplies . For various reasons, such as cast-iron pipes or long residence times in the distribution system, free chlorine may decrease below detection limits . In such cases it is important to know whether or not the water was chlorinated or if nonchlorinated water entered the system by accident . Changes in UV spectra of natural organic matter in lakewater were used to assess qualitatively the degree of chlorination in the treatment to produce drinking water . The changes were more obvious in the first derivative spectra . In lakewater, the derivative spectra have a maximum at about 280 nm . This maximum shifts to longer wavelengths by up to 10 nm, decreases, and eventually disappears with an increasing dose of chlorine . The water treatment system was monitored by this technique for over 1 year and changes in the UV spectra of water samples were compared with experimental samples treated with known amounts of chlorine . The changes of the UV spectra with the concentration of added chlorine are presented . On several occasions, water, which received very little or no chlorination, may have entered the drinking water system . The results show that first derivative spectra are potentially a tool to determine, in the absence of residual chlorine, whether or not surface water was chlorinated during the treatment to produce potable water.

J Med Food, 2003 Spring, 6(1), 57 - 61
Antibacterial activity of berry fruits used for culinary purposes; Cavanagh HM et al.; Increasing interest in the health benefits of various culinary berries has led to investigation of their antibacterial activity . Commercial raspberry, blackcurrant, cranberry, and blackberry cordials (100% fruit) as well as fresh berries were assessed for their ability to inhibit the growth of various bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans . Three of the six raspberry cordials and the blackcurrant cordial inhibited all 12 bacteria and C . albicans at dilutions of 1:5 . Bacteria showed varying susceptibilities to the remaining cordials . All cordials inhibited the growth of Mycobacterium phlei . Of the fresh berries, mulberries and boysenberries did not inhibit any bacteria, and the remaining berries inhibited the growth of varying numbers of bacteria . There was no correlation between gram-positive or gram-negative bacterial status and susceptibility to the berries . It is suggested that the antibacterial activity of these berries may be of benefit as a means of water purification for suspect water supplies or to enhance shelf life when incorporated into food products.

Environ Technol, 2003 May, 24(5), 615 - 25
Removal of heavy metals from waste waters by vermiculites; Alvarez-Ayuso E et al.; The sorbent behaviour of (natural and exfoliated) vermiculite minerals was studied with respect to metal cations (Ni, Cu, Cd) commonly present in waste waters of the metal finishing industry . The Langmuir model was found to describe the sorption processes well, showing the maximum sorption capacities of natural vermiculite to be high enough (bCd = 26.0 mg g(-1); performed bCd = 23.5 mg g(-1); bNi = 19.3 mg g(-1)) for its use in metal waste water purification systems to be feasible . The column studies performed with this mineral show that a large volume of metal solutions with similar concentrations to those usually present in waste waters can be purified down to the legal limit of waste . These positive results are ratified when real waste waters are used at lab-scale as well as at semi-industrial scale, validating the use of this mineral as a cost-effective treatment to purify such waste waters.

Behav Neurosci, 2003 Jun, 117(3), 621 - 31
Novel objects in a holeboard probe the role of the locus coeruleus in curiosity: support for two modes of attention in the rat; Mansour AA et al.; Idazoxan, an alpha 2 adrenoceptor antagonist (2 mg/kg), enhanced novel object investigation in a holeboard in rats as previously reported (V . Devauges & S . J . Sara, 1990) . Two weeks of 10 min/day in 37 degrees C water increased dopamine-beta-hydroxylase staining density in the locus coeruleus but did not enhance novel object investigation . In contrast to idazoxan, however, the warm water treatment increased rearing, center entries, and activity, a pattern previously described during tonic infusion of norepinephrine into the hippocampus . Correlations among dopamine-beta-hydroxylase measures and behavior reinforced these tonic norepinephrine/behavior associations . The behavioral effects across the idazoxan and warm water experiments support G . Aston-Jones et al.'s (1999) 2 modes of attention hypothesis for locus coeruleus function: Phasic locus coeruleus activity promotes focused attention; tonic locus coeruleus activity promotes scanning attention.

Plant J, 2003 Jun, 34(6), 868 - 87
Monitoring expression profiles of Arabidopsis gene expression during rehydration process after dehydration using ca 7000 full-length cDNA microarray; Oono Y et al.; Plants respond and adapt to drought stress in order to survive under stress conditions . Several genes that respond to drought at the transcriptional level have been described, but there are few reports on genes involved in the recovery from dehydration . Analysis of rehydration-inducible genes should help not only to understand the molecular mechanisms of stress responses in higher plants, but also to improve the stress tolerance of crops by gene manipulation . We used a full-length cDNA microarray containing ca . 7000 Arabidopsis full-length cDNAs and identified 152 rehydration-inducible genes . Venn diagram analysis showed relationship of the rehydration-inducible genes to proline-inducible and water-treatment-inducible genes . Among the 152 rehydration-inducible genes, 58 genes contained the ACTCAT sequence involved in proline- and hypoosmolarity-inducible gene expression in their promoter regions, suggesting that ACTCAT sequence is a major cis-acting element involved in rehydration-inducible gene expression, and that some novel cis-acting elements are involved in rehydration-inducible gene expression . Functional analysis of rehydration-inducible and rehydration-repressed genes revealed their functions not only in the release from a stressed status but also in the recovery of growth in plants.

J Appl Toxicol, 2003 May-Jun, 23(3), 171 - 5
Effect of textile waste water on the spermatogenesis of male albino rats; Gupta RS et al.; Textile waste water released from dyeing and printing industries situated in Sanganer, Jaipur (India), brought about inhibition of spermatogenesis in male rats . Water analysis showed the presence of heavy metals at more than permissible limits . Oral administration of waste water to the rats at the dose level of 26.6 ml kg(-1) body wt . significantly reduced the weights of testes, epididymides and seminal vesicle . Treated animals showed a notable depression of various stages of spermatogenesis . The production of spermatids was inhibited by 70.8% in waste-water-treated rats . The populations of spermatogonia, preleptotene spermatocytes and secondary spermatocytes were decreased by 67.2, 71.1 and 73.2%, respectively . The total number of Sertoli cells was affected after waste water treatment . Reduced sperm count and motility resulted in treated groups . A significant fall in the content of various biochemical parameters of reproductive tissues was observed after water treatment .

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(7-8), 299 - 304
Effects of seasonal variation in precipitation on estimation of non-point source pollution; Lin YC et al.; The extent of nonpoint source pollution (NPSP) generated from upstream catchment areas of a reservoir is normally estimated based on a design rainfall . However, rainfall generally varies in different seasons . This seasonal change may significantly influence the estimation of runoff volume and associated NPSP arising within a reservoir watershed . The NPSP management, reservoir operation, and water treatment operation strategies developed based on the estimation will also be altered . This study analyzes the effects of monthly and seasonal variation in precipitation on the estimation of pollution levels from nonpoint sources in a reservoir watershed . The area studied is the Derchi reservoir watershed located in central Taiwan . This watershed is subdivided into twenty-six sub-watersheds, and the Thiessen method is used to determine the rainfall intensity in each sub-watershed . Runoff pattern and NPSP contributions for each sub-watershed are estimated using the AGNPS model . Results show significant seasonal variation in precipitation; estimated NPSP loads likewise vary significantly over time . Seven- to one hundred-fold differences among monthly and seasonal estimations of phosphorus and sediment loads are observed.

Wei Sheng Yan Jiu, 2003 Mar, 32(2), 101 - 3
{Study on the unscheduled DNA synthesis in primary rat hepatocyte induced by source water, tap water and active carbon-treated tap water}; Jiang S et al.; To study the mutagenicity of source water with different turbidities, tap water and active carbon-treated tap water, unscheduled DNA synthesis in primary rat hepatocyte was detected . Increased unscheduled DNA synthesis was found in a dose-depend manner inducted by tap water, source water and tap water treated with 5, 10 and 15 milligrammes active carbon per liter water . The results also showed that the mutagenicity of the source water increased with the increasing of its turbidity, and mutagenicity of the tap water is higher than that of the source water as well . There was no unscheduled DNA synthesis in tap water followed by the treatment with 20 milligrammes active carbon per liter water . It is suggested that the development of the water treatment technics including sedimentation, filtration and treatment with active carbon is needed for decreasing or eliminating the mutagenicity of tap water.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 2003 Jun, 69(6), 3393 - 8
Giardia cysts in wastewater treatment plants in Italy; Caccio SM et al.; Reductions in annual rainfall in some regions and increased human consumption have caused a shortage of water resources at the global level . The recycling of treated wastewaters has been suggested for certain domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities . The importance of microbiological and parasitological criteria for recycled water has been repeatedly emphasized . Among water-borne pathogens, protozoa of the genera Giardia and Cryptosporidium are known to be highly resistant to water treatment procedures and to cause outbreaks through contaminated raw or treated water . We conducted an investigation in four wastewater treatment plants in Italy by sampling wastewater at each stage of the treatment process over the course of 1 year . The presence of the parasites was assessed by immunofluorescence with monoclonal antibodies . While Cryptosporidium oocysts were rarely observed, Giardia cysts were detected in all samples throughout the year, with peaks observed in autumn and winter . The overall removal efficiency of cysts in the treatment plants ranged from 87.0 to 98.4% . The removal efficiency in the number of cysts was significantly higher when the secondary treatment consisted of active oxidation with O(2) and sedimentation instead of activated sludge and sedimentation (94.5% versus 72.1 to 88.0%; P = 0.05, analysis of variance) . To characterize the cysts at the molecular level, the beta-giardin gene was PCR amplified, and the products were sequenced or analyzed by restriction . Cysts were typed as assemblage A or B, both of which are human pathogens, stressing the potential risk associated with the reuse of wastewater.

Mar Pollut Bull, 2003, 47(1-6), 148 - 54
Natural water-purification system observed in a shallow coastal lagoon: Matsukawa-ura, Japan; Kohata K et al.; Field surveys and in situ experiments were conducted in the shallow Matsukawa-ura in summer to evaluate the biological efficiencies of shallow-water areas for preserving coastal ecosystems . In Matsukawa-ura (5.8 km(2)), the suspension-feeding bivalves Ruditapes philippinarum and Crassostrea gigas were the dominant animals--their total biomasses (wet weight) were estimated to be 3.4 x 10(6) and 2.3 x 10(6) kg, respectively . Ulva sp . and Zostera marina were the dominant macrophyte species during the summer, with standing crops estimated to be 0.29 x 10(6) and 0.20 x 10(6) kg, respectively . The dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) uptake rates for Ulva sp . and Z . marina were determined by in situ experiments . An ecological model calculated on the basis of the observed dataset showed that, in comparison with tidal exchange, a significant amount of particulate organic matter was removed by bivalve filtration and a considerable quantity of DIN was removed by macrophyte species.

Mar Pollut Bull, 2003, 47(1-6), 43 - 51
Water pollution and habitat degradation in the Gulf of Thailand; Cheevaporn V et al.; The Gulf of Thailand has been a major marine resource for Thai people for a long time . However, recent industrialization and community development have exerted considerable stress on the marine environments and provoked habitat degradation . The following pollution problems in the Gulf have been prioritized and are discussed in details: (1) Untreated municipal and industrial waste water are considered to be the most serious problems of the country due to limited waste water treatment facilities in the area . (2) Eutrophication is an emerging problem in the gulf of Thailand . Fortunately, the major species of phytoplankton that have been reported as the cause of red tide phenomena were non-toxic species such as Noctiluca sp . and Trichodesmium sp . (3) Few problems have been documented from trace metals contamination in the Gulf of Thailand and public health threat from seafood contamination does not appear to be significant yet . (4) Petroleum hydrocarbon residue contamination is not a problem, although a few spills from small oil tankers have been recorded . A rapid decrease in mangrove forest, coral reefs, and fisheries resources due to mismanagement is also discussed.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 May 15, 37(10), 2291 - 5
Complete degradation of perchlorate in ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid under controlled temperature and pressure; Gu B et al.; Despite favorable thermodynamics, the reduction of perchlorate (ClO4-) is kinetically limited in aqueous media because of its high activation energy . In this paper, a new methodology has been presented for degrading ClO4- in an FeCl3-HCl solution at an elevated temperature (< 200 degrees C) and/or pressure (approximately 20 atm) . Results indicate that the rate constant for the pseudo-first-order reaction between ClO4- and ferrous Fe(II) (in excess) increased nearly 3 orders of magnitude when the temperature was increased from 110 to 195 degrees C, and a complete reduction of ClO4- occurred in < 1 h at 195 degrees C in the FeCl3-HCl solution . The activation energy of the reaction was calculated to be about 120 kJ/mol . Additionally, a flow-through reactor was constructed based on the batch kinetic measurements, and a nearly complete degradation of ClO4- was observed under continuous-flow mode . Because the FeCl3-HCl solution has been successfully used in regenerating selective anion-exchange resins sorbed with ClO4- during water treatment, this new methodology offers a cost-effective means to degrade ClO4- while not altering the chemical properties of the FeCl3-HCl regenerant solution so it can be reused, eliminating the production of secondary wastes.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 May 15, 37(10), 2134 - 8
Quantitative evaluation of the synergistic sequential inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores with ozone followed by chlorine; Cho M et al.; This investigation of sequential disinfection, with ozone followed by free chlorine, was carried out using Bacillus subtilis spores, to make a quantitative evaluation and to improve the mechanistic understanding of their synergistic effect . This study shows that the extent of the synergistic effect in the inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores appears to be dependent upon the level of preozonation . However, when the ozone pretreatment level exceeded the lag phase of the ozone inactivation curve, the chlorine inactivation curves were almost identical regardless of the level of preozonation . When this sequential disinfection was performed in the reverse order, no enhanced disinfection was observed . This difference, depending on the order of disinfectant application in sequential disinfection, was explained in terms of the enhanced disinfection being the result of the greater intracellular diffusion of free chlorine, caused by the cell surface disruption induced by ozone . The practical implications of this synergistic sequential inactivation with ozone followed by free chlorine were discussed, along with the issue of selecting the amount of each oxidant to use in water treatment plants, to achieve a specific level of microorganism inactivation.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 May 15, 37(10), 2109 - 13
Aerosol-bound emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sterols from aeration tanks of a municipal waste water treatment plant; Radke M et al.; Aeration tanks of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are a potential source of atmospheric aerosol particles . Several groups of organic compounds (sterols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, estrogens) were analyzed in aerosol particles sampled at a municipal WWTP, and the particle size distribution was measured directly with optical particle counters . Aerosol emissions from an activated treatment tank equipped with fine bubble diffusers were low; however, at the preaeration tank equipped with coarse bubble diffusers, sterol concentrations up to 14 ng m(-3) were measured . Directly next to the tank, sterols were associated mainly to particles with aerodynamic diameter >1.35 microm . The results suggest that coprostanol could be a useful tracer for monitoring the emission of aerosol particles from WWTPs . Moreover, wastewater treatment could contribute substantially to the atmospheric concentrations of cholesterol and 24-ethylcholesterol . Aeration tanks with fine bubble diffusers are no major source of atmospheric aerosol particles, whereas coarse bubbling devices seem to emit considerable amounts of aerosol particles.

Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2003 Mar, 984, 65 - 84
Integrating photocatalysis and membrane technologies for water treatment; Ollis DF; Removal of organic contaminants in water may sometimes be more easily achieved with a pair rather than with a single unit operation . We explore here the combination of an ambient temperature, chemical oxidation photocatalysis (PC) process with physical separation via a membrane operation, microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), or reverse osmosis (RO) using both a conceptual statement and a literature review format . Four configurations are noted and discussed here: (1) PC + MF for catalyst slurry recycle, (2) PC + UF for catalyst slurry and (polymer) reactant recycle, (3) immobilized PC and UF/RO for reactant recycle, and (4) immobilized PC on UF/RO membrane for membrane self-cleaning . Although the literature review is encouraging with respect to plausibility, the paucity of examples indicates a need for substantial effort to fully exploit the suggested possibilities for process development.

Int J Environ Health Res, 2003 Jun, 13 Suppl 1, S95 - 105
Coping with hygiene in South Africa, a water scarce country; Duse AG et al.; The burden of infectious diseases may be reduced by adopting effective infection control measures . Some of these are dependent on the provision of adequate and safe water supplies for maintenance of basic standards of personal, domestic and healthcare hygiene . Consequences of scarce, and sometimes unsafe, waters supplies in South Africa are highlighted with reference to healthcare-associated infections, community acquired infectious intestinal diseases and domestic practices as infection sources . Availability of water in more than 67% of South African municipal hospitals and primary health care facilities (delivered by water tanker in 12.5% of satellite clinics, 5% from river or dam sources, 12.4% relying on rainwater) does not necessarily guarantee that it's quality is safe for utilisation . In the Northern Province and Mpumalanga, water needs to be purified prior to usage in 14.4 and 33% of satellite clinics respectively . Simple, low maintenance and low-cost interventions to maximise use and safety of limited water resources may be implemented: micro-organism (S . dysenteriae) inactivation by direct UV-exposure in sunlight abundant environments, water purification by filtration mechanisms and making use of iron pots in the community for pasteurisation, decontamination and boiling procedures . Education is paramount in promoting healthy domestic food handling practices, changing cultural perceptions of hygiene, hand-washing technique and mechanisms of domestic environmental decontamination . Water provision cannot be separated from other inter-related factors such as sanitation . Although the present government has taken initiatives to reduce the number of people not having access to water by 50% in 2002, provision of sanitation has been slower (>38% inadequate sanitation in 2002) . Adoption of integrated environmental management approaches in conjunction with community participation (WASH Campaign--2002), by the government, aims to address the sanitation problems.

Int J Environ Health Res, 2003 Jun, 13 Suppl 1, S9 - 17
The infection potential in the home and the role of hygiene: historical and current perspectives; Stanwell-Smith R; The control of infection through hygiene has a long erratic history . Personal hygiene and handwashing was less appreciated in the past, since it was not known that invisible organisms could spread from apparently clean hands and surfaces . The role of a hygienic home environment received little attention until the 19th century . Since then, the modern tradition of hygiene has served us well, with improved water and drainage developing alongside vaccination, antibiotics, water purification, improved food production and hygienic food preparation and storage . Two major epidemiological trends are relevant to hygiene perspectives: the decline in the morbidity and mortality from infection, and the transition towards higher levels of chronic or debilitating disease . While mortality from some infections has decreased, communicable disease is no less prevalent . Infectious intestinal disease is still unacceptably high in both developed and developing countries . The control of infection within the home needs to take account of changing epidemiological trends, emphasis on evidence-based approaches and loss of public awareness of the role of hygiene . In earlier eras lack of research on the home environment prevented sufficient attention to infection transmission in the domestic setting . Recent research has demonstrated how microbial contamination can be transmitted by activities in the home . Application of this knowledge could significantly reduce the continuing impact of infectious diseases in our communities.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 May 1, 37(9), 1882 - 91
Risk-based approach to evaluate the public health benefit of additional wastewater treatment; Soller JA et al.; The City of Stockton, CA operates a wastewater treatment facility that discharges tertiary treated effluent during the summer and secondary treated effluent during the winter to the San Joaquin River . Investigations were carried out between 1996 and 2002 to provide insight regarding the potential public health benefit that may be provided by year-round tertiary treatment . A hydraulic model of the San Joaquin River and a dynamic disease transmission model integrated a wide array of disparate data to estimate the level of viral gastroenteritis in the population under the two treatment scenarios . The results of the investigation suggest that risk of viral gastroenteritis attributable to the treatment facility under the existing treatment scheme is several orders of magnitude below the 8-14 illnesses per 1000 recreation events considered tolerable by U.S . EPA, and winter tertiary treatment would further reduce the existing risk by approximately 15-50% . The methodologies employed herein are applicable to other watersheds where additional water treatment is being considered to address public health concerns from recreation in receiving waters.

Water Res, 2003 Jul, 37(12), 2998 - 3008
Removal of viable and inactivated Cryptosporidium by dual- and tri-media filtration; Emelko MB; The limited efficacy of disinfectants, other than ultraviolet irradiation and ozonation, as a barrier against Cryptosporidium parvum in drinking water treatment has underscored the increased importance of oocyst removal by filtration . Currently, no reliable surrogates have been identified for C . parvum removal by filtration . As a result, evaluations of the Cryptosporidium removal by treatment operations have been performed using oocysts . It has typically been assumed that chemically inactivated oocysts are suitable surrogates for viable oocysts . Measurements of electrophoretic mobility, however, have shown that chemical inactivation changes the surface charge of Cryptosporidium oocysts . The present bench-scale research indicated that formalin-inactivated oocysts are reliable surrogates for viable oocysts during both stable filter operation and periods where filtration processes are challenged, such as coagulation failure . This finding is important because of the practical difficulties associated with using viable oocysts in filtration investigations . Poor coagulation conditions severely compromised removal of viable and inactivated oocysts by dual- and tri-media filters compared to stable operating conditions and filter ripening, emphasizing the importance of optimized chemical pre-treatment (coagulation) for the successful removal of oocysts during filtration . The treatment optimization experiments also indicated that tri-media filters offered only marginally higher oocyst removals than dual-media filters.

Water Res, 2003 Jul, 37(12), 2883 - 92
Rate constants of reactions of bromine with phenols in aqueous solution; Gallard H et al.; The kinetics of bromination of six ortho- and para-substituted phenols was investigated between pH 5 and pH 12 in aqueous solution . Kinetics was followed with a continuous-flow reactor previously validated by studying the fast reaction between chlorine and ammonia . The overall reaction rate between bromine and phenols is controlled by the reaction of HOBr with the phenoxide ion between pH 6 and pH 10 . The reaction of HOBr with the undissociated phenols and the reaction of BrO(-) with the phenoxide ions become only significant for pH<6 and pH>10, respectively . The second-order rate constants for the reaction of HOBr with phenoxide ions vary between 1.4(+/-0.1)x10(3) and 2.1(+/-0.5)x10(8)M(-1)s(-1) for 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and 4-methylphenol, respectively . Hammett-type correlation was obtained for the reaction of HOBr with the phenoxide ions (log(k)=8.0-3.33 x Sigmasigma) and was compared with Hammett-type correlations of HOCl and HOI . The reaction rate of bromine with phenol-like organic compounds was estimated to be about 10(3)-fold higher than with chlorine and 10(3)-fold lower than with ozone in drinking water treatment conditions.

Bioresour Technol, 2003 Apr, 87(2), 167 - 98
Transformation of vegetable waste into value added products: (A) the upgrading concept; (B) practical implementations; Laufenberg G et al.; Waste can contain many reusable substances of high value . Depending on there being an adequate technology this residual matter can be converted into commercial products either as raw material for secondary processes, as operating supplies or as ingredients of new products . Numerous valuable substances in food production are suitable for separation and recycling at the end of their life cycle, even though present separation and recycling processes are not absolutely cost efficient . In Part A a need statement is visualised--based on a holistic concept of food production--for the vegetable industry, recording occurrence, quantities and utilisation of the residual products . A literature survey, covering more than 160 articles from all over the world, plus our own investigations summarises the latest knowledge in the above-mentioned field and outline prospects for future economic treatment of vegetable 'co-products' . The main goal of a clean production process is demonstrated by three practical implementations in Part B: 1 . Upgrading of vegetable residues for the production of novel types of products: multifunctional food ingredients in fruit juice and bakery goods . 2 . Bioconversion via solid-state fermentation: vegetable residues as an exclusive substrate for the generation of fruity food flavours . 3 . Conversion of vegetable residues into operating supplies: bioadsorbents for waste water treatment . The investigations are promising with regard to future application in the mentioned industrial branch . The outlined concept can be naturally transferred to several areas of industrial food production . The intentions of this research area are located at the development of techniques, which fulfil the conditions of environmental protection with costs to a minimum . The prospect of several new niche markets is worthwhile indeed.

Medicina (Kaunas), 2003, 39 Suppl 1, 98 - 103
{Water treatment systems of hemodialysis centers in Lithuania and trace metals in purified water in 2002}; Skarupskiene I et al.; The objective of this survey was to obtain information on hemodialysis chemical water quality and on water treatment systems of hemodialysis centers in Lithuania . Five trace metals (Al, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu) were examined in the purified water (sample from a point after the water treatment system) of 28 hemodialysis centers . Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was applied to measure water trace metals levels . All hemodialysis centers in Lithuania used treated water . Softeners were used by 100%, reverse osmosis by 86.2% of the centers . Concomitant use of sand filter, softeners, activated carbon, reverse osmosis was found in 72.4% of the centers . The age of the water treatment system varied from 1 to 117 months (mean=39.7+/-30.4) . Concentrations of Al, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu in the purified water of 28 hemodialysis centers did not exceed standarts of the European Pharmacopoeia . There was significant decrease in the mean levels of investigated trace elements in the treated water in Lithuania in 2002 compared with examined in 1998.

J Parasitol, 2003 Apr, 89(2), 369 - 71
Evaluation of analyzing methods for Giardia and Cryptosporidium in a Taiwan water treatment plant; Hsu BM; Giardia sp . and Cryptosporidium sp . have emerged as waterborne pathogens of concern in Taiwan . This study examined both parasites in the actual water samples in southern Taiwan . Method 1623 was characterized by a higher recovery rate and lower detection limit compared with the information collection requirement protozoan method . A significant correlation between water turbidity and Cryptosporidium sp . in raw water samples was found in this study.

Water Res, 2003 Jun, 37(11), 2533 - 46
Environmental chemistry of phosphonates; Nowack B; Phosphonates are anthropogenic complexing agents containing one or more C-PO(OH)(2) groups . They are used in numerous technical and industrial applications as chelating agents and scale inhibitors . Phosphonates have properties that differentiate them from other chelating agents and that greatly affect their environmental behavior . Phosphonates have a very strong interaction with surfaces, which results in a significant removal in technical and natural systems . Due to this strong adsorption, little or no remobilization of metals is expected . No biodegradation of phosphonates during water treatment is observed but photodegradation of the Fe(III)-complexes is rapid . Aminopolyphosphonates are also rapidly oxidized in the presence of Mn(II) and oxygen and stable breakdown products are formed that have been detected in wastewater . The lack of information about phosphonates in the environment is linked to analytical problems of their determination at trace concentrations in natural waters . Further method development is urgently needed in this area, including speciation of these compounds . With the current knowledge on speciation, we can conclude that phosphonates are mainly present as Ca and Mg-complexes in natural waters and therefore do not affect metal speciation or transport.

Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser, 1983 Mar, 247, 1 - 172
NTP Carcinogenesis Bioassay of L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) (CAS No . 50-81-7) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Feed Study); National Toxicology Program ; L-Ascorbic acid is essential for many physiologic functions in animals and humans, mostly biochemical reactions involving oxidation . L-Ascorbic acid is approved for use as a dietary supplement and chemical preservative by the U.S . Food and Drug Administration and is on the FDA's list of substances generally recognized as safe . L-Ascorbic acid may be used in soft drinks as an antioxidant for flavor ingredients, in meat and meat-containing products, for curing and pickling, in flour to improve baking quality, in beer as a stabilizer, in fats and oils as an antioxidant, and in a wide variety of foods for vitamin C enrichment . L-Ascorbic acid may also find use in stain removers, hair waving preparations; plastics manufacture, photography, and water treatment . A NTP Carcinogenesis bioassay of L-ascorbic acid (>97% pure) was conducted by administering diets containing 25,000 or 50,000 ppm L-ascorbic acid to groups of 50 F344/N rats and 50 B6C3F1 mice of each sex for 103 weeks . Controls consisted of 50 untreated rats and untreated mice of each sex . Fifty-thousand ppm is the highest dose recommended for chronic studies . Survival of dosed and control female rats and of dosed and control female mice were comparable . Survival of high-dose male rats was slightly greater than that of the controls (P=0.087) . Survival of high-dose male mice was significantly greater (P=0.009) than that of the controls . Throughout most of the study, mean body weights of dosed female rats and dosed female mice were lower than those of the controls . Final body weights were comparable among groups, except for the high-dose female rats (<13%); marginal differences (<8%) were observed for low-dose female rats and for dosed female mice (8%-11%) . Food consumption was equivalent among groups . Most observational differences were confined to the female rat . The incidence of low-dose female rats with undifferentiated (mononuclear-cell) leukemias (control, 6/50, 12%; low-dose, 17/50, 34%; high-dose, 12/50, 24%) was significantly higher (P<0.02) than that in controls . These tumors were not considered to be related to administration of L-ascorbic acid because they did not occur in the female high-dose group at incidences significantly greater (P>0.07) than those in the controls, the trend test was not significant (P>/=0.07), and no increases were observed for male rats . Under the conditions of this bioassay, L-ascorbic acid was not carcinogenic for male and female F344/N rats or male and female B6C3F1 mice . Levels of Evidence of Carcinogenicity: Male Rats: Negative Female Rats: Negative Male Mice: Negative Female Mice: Negative Synonym: vitamin C

J Food Prot, 2003 May, 66(5), 767 - 74
Chemical and irradiation treatments for killing Escherichia coli O157:H7 on alfalfa, radish, and mung bean seeds; Bari ML et al.; In this study, the effectiveness of dry-heat treatment in combination with chemical treatments (electrolyzed oxidizing {EO} water, califresh-S, 200 ppm of active chlorinated water) with and without sonication in eliminating Escherichia coli O157:H7 on laboratory-inoculated alfalfa, radish, and mung bean seeds was compared with that of dry-heat treatment in combination with irradiation treatment . The treatment of mung bean seeds with EO water in combination with sonication followed by a rinse with sterile distilled water resulted in reductions of approximately 4.0 log10 CFU of E . coli O157:H7 per g . whereas reductions of ca . 1.52 and 2.64 log10 CFU/g were obtained for radish and alfalfa seeds . The maximum reduction (3.70 log10 CFU/g) for mung bean seeds was achieved by treatment with califresh-S and chlorinated water (200 ppm) in combination with sonication and a rinse . The combination of dry heat, hot EO water treatment, and sonication was able to eliminate pathogen populations on mung bean seeds but was unable to eliminate the pathogen on radish and alfalfa seeds . Other chemical treatments used were effective in greatly reducing pathogen populations on radish and alfalfa seeds without compromising the quality of the sprouts, but these treatments did not result in the elimination of pathogens from radish and alfalfa seeds . Moreover, a combination of dry-heat and irradiation treatments was effective in eliminating E . coli O157:H7 on laboratory-inoculated alfalfa, radish, and mung bean seeds . An irradiation dose of 2.0 kGy in combination with dry heat eliminated E . coli O157:H7 completely from alfalfa and mung bean seeds, whereas a 2.5-kGy dose of irradiation was required to eliminate the pathogen completely from radish seeds . Dry heat in combination with irradiation doses of up to 2.0 kGy did not unacceptably decrease the germination percentage for alfalfa seeds or the length of alfalfa sprouts but did decrease the lengths of radish and mung bean sprouts.

Clin Chem Lab Med, 2003 Apr, 41(4), 486 - 91
Impact of purified water quality on molecular biology experiments; Mabic S et al.; Purified water is a reagent used in a variety of molecular biology experiments, for sample and media preparation, in mobile phases of liquid chromatography techniques, and in rinsing steps . The combination of several technologies in water purification systems allows delivering high-purity water adapted to each application and technique . Through a series of examples, the importance of water quality on biotechnology experiments, such as single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis by denaturating HPLC, RNA preparation and PCR, is presented . Results obtained on DNA mutation and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis using the denaturating HPLC (DHPLC) technique highlight the benefits of organic removal by UV photooxidation process . Comparative gel electrophoresis data show that ultrafiltration is as efficient as diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) treatment for suppressing RNase activity in water . Gel electrophoresis and densitometry measurement also point out the benefits of ultrafiltration to carry out reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction quantitatively.

Int J Environ Health Res, 2003 Jun, 13(2), 181 - 97
A theoretical approach to assess microbial risks due to failures in drinking water systems; Westrell T et al.; A failure in treatment or in the distribution network of a surface water-works could have serious consequences due to the variable raw water quality in combination with an extended distribution . The aim of this study was to examine the theoretical impact of incidents in the drinking water system on the annual risk of infection in a population served by a large water treatment plant in Sweden . Reported incidents in the system were examined and a microbial risk assessment that included three pathogens, Cryptosporidium parvum, rotavirus and Campylobacter jejuni, was performed . The main risk incidents in water treatment were associated with sub-optimal particle removal or disinfection malfunction . Incidents in the distribution network included cross-connections and microbial pollution of reservoirs and local networks . The majority of the annual infections were likely to be due to pathogens passing treatment during normal operation and not due to failures, thus adding to the endemic rate . Among the model organisms, rotavirus caused the largest number of infections . Decentralised water treatment with membranes was also considered in which failures upstream fine-pored membranes would have little impact as long as the membranes were kept intact.

J Am Soc Mass Spectrom, 2003 May, 14(5), 516 - 27
Low nanogram per liter determination of halogenated nonylphenols, nonylphenol carboxylates, and their non-halogenated precursors in water and sludge by liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry; Petrovic M et al.; A new LC-MS-MS method for quantitative analysis of nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol carboxylates (NPECs), and their halogenated derivatives: brominated and chlorinated nonylphenols (BrNP, ClNP), brominated and chlorinated nonylphenol carboxylates (BrNPE(1)C and ClNPE(1)C) and ethoxycarboxylates (BrNPE(2)C and ClNPE(2)C) in water and sludge has been developed . Electrospray negative ionization MS-MS was applied for the identification of above mentioned compounds . Upon collision-induced dissociation, their deprotonated molecules gave different fragments formed by the cleavage of the alkyl moiety and/or (ethoxy)carboxylic moiety . For halogenated compounds a highly diagnostic characteristic pattern of isotopic doublet signals was obtained and fragmentation yielded, in addition to above mentioned ions, {Br}(-) and {Cl}(-), respectively . Quantitative analysis was done in the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, using two specific combinations of a precursor-product ion transitions for each compound . Additionally, for halogenated compounds two specific channels for each transition reaction, corresponding to two isotopes, were monitored and the ratio of their abundances used as an identification criterion . The method has been validated in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, accuracy, and precision and was applied to the analysis of water and sludge samples from drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) of Barcelona (Catalonia, NE Spain) . Halogenated NP and NPECs were detected in prechlorinated water in concentrations up to 315 ng/L, BrNPE(2)C being the most abundant compound . In the DWTP effluent non-halogenated compounds were detected at trace levels (85, 12 and 10 ng/L for NP, NPE(1)C, and NPE(2)C, respectively), whereas concentration of halogenated derivatives never exceeded 10 ng/L . Nonylphenol, brominated and chlorinated NPs were found in flocculation sludge in concentrations of 150, 105, and 145 microg/kg, respectively . Acidic polar metabolites were found in lower concentrations up to 20 microg/kg.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 May, 38(5), 923 - 34
Counterflow co-flocculation flotation for water purification; Guo J et al.; A new method for potable water treatment was brought forward and studied in this research . The treatment process was named as counterflow co-flocculation flotation (CC-FF) . Pilot experiment was conducted and the operational parameters were presented . The optimized operational conditions are as follows: the detention time is 6-11 min with hydraulic load of 9-16 m3/(m2 h); the recycle ratio should be no less than 8% while the distance between the inlet of source water and recycle water should be greater than 1200 mm . If the source water turbidity was lower than 100 NTU, 0.12-0.35 mmol/L Al dosage is enough to maintain efficient turbidity removal . Since the flocculation and flotation processes were carried out in the same tank, this new technique has some advantages than the conventional flocculation-flotation methods . Firstly, the microbubbles released from recycle water will participate in the flocculation of suspended particles, hence the low-density but high shear-force-resistance flocci could be formed . Secondly, the microflocci or suspended particles will be functioned as 'nucleus' during the bubble formation from air-dissolved recycle water . Thirdly, in the midsection of the tank a blanket of bubble-microfloc aggregates could be formed, which will intercept the downward-flow flocci and upward-flow bubbles efficiently, thus keep the renovation and stability of the blanket.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 May, 38(5), 807 - 21
Elemental transport and distribution in soils amended with incinerated sewage sludge; Paramasivam S et al.; Sewage sludge (SS) is the major solid waste of sewage and wastewater treatment plants in cities around the world . Even though treated effluent water from wastewater treatment plants are utilized for irrigation, disposal of sewage sludge is becoming a serious problem . This is due to its high content of certain heavy metals still posing threat of accumulation in plants and groundwater contamination when it is used as soil amendment or disposed in landfills . Water treatment plants incinerate the dewatered activated sewage sludge (ISS) and dissolve the ash in water to store in ash ponds for long-term storage (WISS) . A study was undertaken to evaluate the transport and leaching potential of various elements and their distribution within soil columns amended with various rates of ISS . Results of this study indicates that ISS from wastewater treatment plants can be used as soil amendment on agricultural lands at low to medium rates (< or = 100 Mg ha(-1)) without causing potential loading of metals into groundwater.

Med J Malaysia, 2002 Dec, 57 Suppl E, 94 - 8
Community Residency Programme (CRP)--a tool for research and rural health training for medical students; Yadav H; Rural health training is an important element in the training of medical students in the University of Malaya . There is a need for the undergraduates to be familiar with the rural health infrastructure and to understand the social and economic aspects of the rural poor . The objective of the training is to make the students understand the problems faced by the poor in the rural areas so that when they practice in rural health areas, after graduation, they will understand the problems of the rural poor . They will have the knowledge of the diseases in the rural areas and also understand the community and the environmental factors that contribute to the disease . The training lasts' for 4 weeks, one week for lectures on health survey, two weeks for the field trip and one week of data analysis and presentation of their findings to an expert panel . During the field trip the students are divided into groups and they go to different parts of the country . Each group will do a field survey to find out the socio-demography, environmental, economic, nutritional and health problems in the village . In addition to the survey they also do a research project on any topic . The students also do social work, visit places of public health interest like the water treatment plant, sewage disposal, factory visits and others . Apart from technical skills in statistics and epidemiology, various other managerial skills like leadership, teamwork, communications and public relations are also learnt during the training . In conclusion this rural health training is an important aspect of the medical students training as it imparts several skills to them that are needed as a doctor.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Apr 15, 37(8), 1663 - 9
Fouling and natural organic matter removal in adsorbent/membrane systems for drinking water treatment; Zhang M et al.; Adsorbent particles added to ultrafiltration (UF) systems treating drinking water can remove natural organic matter (NOM) and some other contaminants from the water, but their effect on membrane fouling is inconsistent-in some cases, fouling is reduced, and in others, it is exacerbated . This research investigated the behavior of UF systems to which powdered activated carbon (PAC), heated iron oxide particles (HIOPs), or (nonadsorbent) SiO2 particles were added . On a mass basis, the PAC removed the most NOM from solution, the HIOPs removed less, and the SiO2 removed essentially none . However, in the case of both PAC and SiO2, increasing the dose of solids led to a steady increase in fouling, whereas the opposite trend applied when HIOPs were added . In the absence of NOM, none of the solids fouled the membrane significantly . Thus, even though NOM is a causative agent for fouling, removing it from solution does not necessarily reduce fouling; the mechanism of removal can be just as important as the absolute amount removed, if the removal occurs in a cake layer near the membrane surface . Scanning electron microscopy images of the cake layers formed in the three systems suggest that the NOM binds PAC or SiO2 particles to one another and to the membrane surface, so that the particles become part of the foulant in the system . By contrast, the NOM appears to bind HIOPs to one another but not to the membrane . This process leaves enough pore space in the cake layer for water to reach the membrane with minimal resistance, and it reduces the tendency for either the NOM or the HIOPs to foul the membrane surface.

Int Microbiol, 2003 Mar, 6(1), 41 - 7 Epub 2003 Mar 06.
Combination ecotoxicity and testing of common chemical discharges to sewer using the Vibrio fischeri luminescence bioassay; Hoffmann C et al.; In order to investigate possible synergistic or antagonistic (more or less than additive) toxicity effects, mixtures of chemicals were tested in water using a microbial bioassay . Ten toxicants (3,4-dichloroaniline, 3,5-dichlorophenol, cadmium, chromium, copper, Lindane, linear alkylbenzene sulphonate, pentachlorophenol, toluene, zinc) were chosen on the basis of their common occurrence in industrial effluents within local waste water treatment plants . These toxicants also cover a wide range of modes of toxic action, namely, polar and non-polar narcosis, membrane disruption, respiratory disruption, uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation, biochemical disruption and enzyme inhibition . Efficient screening for possible combination toxicity between toxicants involved testing the chemicals both singly and in triplet combinations . The triplets were based on four replicates of a balanced incomplete block design (BIB) . A standardised Vibrio fischeri rapid toxicity bioluminescence assay was used . The combinations tested showed that only one mixture was found to be significantly more toxic than expected from the pure single-toxicant results . Two triplets were significantly less toxic . Further tests on the more toxic triplet showed that the effect was due to only one of the 45 pairs originally screened . It is concluded that synergistic effects in combinations of toxicants are rather rare in bioluminescence systems utilising common effluents discharged to sewer.

Chemosphere, 2003 Jul, 52(1), 253 - 7
Emission factors and sources of ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid in waste water--a case study; Fuerhacker M et al.; Ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is a complexing agent and has the ability to form stable water-soluble complexes with metal ions . It is used in a variety of industrial applications including pulp and paper, metal, textile, leather rubber, pharmaceuticals, food, polymer production and others . Most of these applications are water based and lead to emissions into the waste water and reach sewage treatment plants . Industrial sources and municipal waste waters were monitored simultaneously . Mixed samples were taken over periods of one week at nine sample sites . The concentrations of EDTA were measured in waste water samples by gas chromatography using N-selective detection . The results showed that, although, the concentrations and loads were variable the paper manufacturing industry was the major EDTA contributor to the influent of the waste water treatment plant and contributed more than 98% of the total load . All the other sources including two household areas, were comparably low . In waste water of households concentrations between 10 and 70 microg/l EDTA could be detected . Concentrations of EDTA from different industrial waste water sources ranged from 28 up to 3980 microg/l . Influent and effluent concentrations of the WWTP were usually high in the range of 500-940 and 390-760 microg/l; respectively . Elimination rates averaged 15%, the calculation is based on emission loads . Specific emission factors were calculated based on population equivalents.

Chemosphere, 2003 Jul, 52(1), 1 - 21
Cyanobacterial toxins: a growing environmental concern; Haider S et al.; Unusual blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in water bodies have drawn attention of environmentalists world over . Major blooms of Anabaena, Microcystis and Nodularia in water storage reservoirs, rivers and lakes leading to adverse health effects have been reported from Australia, England and many other parts of the world . An overview of the morphology and taxonomy of these toxic blue-green algae; their possible sources of contamination including dietary supplements and their potential to cause hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity is given in this review . A detailed description of different cyanotoxins, and their mode of action has also been compiled . Reports of acute and chronic exposure to these toxic algae and their health effects on unsuspecting population along with a critical evaluation of efficacy of water treatment procedures to control them is presented here.

Gac Sanit, 2003 Mar-Apr, 17(2), 137 - 43
{Trihalomethanes in the drinking water of Carabobo State, Venezuela}; Sarmiento A et al.; OBJECTIVE: Disinfection of water with chlorine in water treatment plants leads to the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) . These compounds are associated with adverse health effects . The aim of this study was to analyze THM concentrations in the water provided for human consumption in the two main water treatment systems of Carabobo State: the Alejo Zuloaga plant and the Pao-Cachinche reservoir, which form the Central Regional System I (CRS I), and the Lucio Baldo Soules plant and the Pao-La Balsa reservoir, which form the Central Regional System II (CRS II).Methods: We analyzed 144 water samples collected in 6 samplings carried out in 2000 and 2001 . THM concentrations were determined by gas chromatography using the headspace technique . The concentrations of the following THMs were measured: chloroform (CHCl3), bromoform (CHBr3), chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2Cl) and bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br) . RESULTS: The concentration of total THMs was between 47.84 g/l and 94.23 g/l . CHCl3 was the most commonly formed compound representing 83% of all THMs in the CRS I and 82% in the CRS II . The concentrations of total THMs in the CRS I, specifically in the Baja and San Diego networks, were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than permissible levels set by the American Environmental Protection Agency (80 g/l) for the sum of all four THMs . CONCLUSIONS: The results show that in the area studied there is a risk of adverse health effects due to THMs in drinking water, especially in the Baja and San Diego networks.

J Environ Monit, 2003 Apr, 5(2), 346 - 52
Monitoring of the three organophosphate esters TBP, TCEP and TBEP in river water and ground water (Oder, Germany); Fries E et al.; The behaviour of the three organophosphate esters tributyl phosphate (TBP), tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP) during infiltration of river water to ground water has been investigated . The monitoring site is the Oder River and the adjacent Oderbruch aquifer . From March 2000 to July 2001, 76 ground water samples from monitoring wells located close to the Oder River and nine river water samples were collected . Additionally, influent and effluent samples from local waste water treatment plants, one sample of rain water and samples of roof runoff were collected . All samples were analysed by solid-phase-extraction followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry . TBP, TCEP and TBEP were detected at mean values of 622 ng l(-1), 352 ng l(-1), and 2955 ng l(-1), respectively in municipal waste water effluents . This points to a major input of these compounds into the Oder River by municipal waste water discharge . The concentrations of TBP and TBEP decreased downstream the Oder River possibly due to aerobic degradation . TBP, TCEP and TBEP were detected in ground water influenced predominantly by bank-filtered water . This demonstrates a transport of organic compounds by river water infiltration to ground water . TBP, TCEP and TBEP were also detected in rain water precipitation, roof runoff and ground water predominantly influenced by rain water infiltration . This hints to an input of these compounds to ground water by dry and wet deposition after atmospheric transport . Organophosphate esters were also detected in parts of the aquifer at 21 m depth . This demonstrates low anaerobic degradation rates of TBP, TCEP and TBEP.

J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2003 Apr, 38(4), 619 - 30
The effectiveness of a new gas-induced reactor in treating phenolic wastewater by ozonation and hydrogen peroxide; Ma HW et al.; A new Gas-Induced Reactor (GIR) has been developed to improve the efficiency of ozone utilization in water treatment . In this study, the GIR was used to investigate the behavior of ozonation of aqueous phenol solution by means of O3 and O3/H2O2 processes in order to explore the feasibility and efficiency of treating such wastewater using the new GIR . The study observed the decomposition of phenol, utilization of ozone, and variation of TOC during ozonation, varying pH values, phenol initial concentrations, ozone input concentrations, and hydrogen peroxide dosages . The study concluded that the new GIR was capable of performing effective and efficient ozonation of phenolic wastewater, maintaining high ozone utilization ratios at all experimental pH values and initial phenol and ozone concentrations . The optimal pH condition for phenol removal was around 11 . The best molar ratios of initial hydrogen peroxide over input ozone among the performed experiments were about 20 at pH 7 and 10 at pH 9 and 11 . The primary operational energy used for treating a tonne of wastewater was 66 MJ, giving treatment costs of about USS1.0 per tonne.

Plast Reconstr Surg, 2003 May, 111(6), 1883 - 90
Long-term effects of polyacrylamide hydrogel on human breast tissue; Christensen LH et al.; Polyacrylamide hydrogel is an atoxic, stable, nonresorbable sterile watery gel consisting of approximately 2.5% cross-linked polyacrylamide and nonpyrogenic water . Polyacrylamide hydrogel is widely used in ophthalmic operations, drug treatment, food packaging products, and water purification . In the former Soviet Union, polyacrylamide hydrogel has been used in plastic and aesthetic surgery for more than 10 years, and Kiev City Hospital treats approximately 300 women a year for breast augmentation using the polyacrylamide hydrogel Interfall (Contura SA, Montreux, Switzerland) . Capsule shrinkage following these injections has never been observed . The authors examined breast tissue samples from a total of 27 women who had polyacrylamide hydrogel injected at Kiev City Hospital up to 8 years and 10 months earlier . Age at operation, duration of polyacrylamide hydrogel implantation, history of possible side effects to the gel injection, other intercurrent diseases, the reason for present open breast operation, and breast palpation findings before operation were in each case compared with the histological findings on samples taken from breast tissue bordering the gel . The gel presented itself as a dark violet, homogenous mass with a rounded or ragged outline in large or medium-size deposits and as elongated strands, which mimicked the extracellular matrix, in small deposits . Histological findings of the breast tissue bordering the gel showed three different patterns: large collections of gel gave rise to a thick, soft-looking cellular membrane of macrophages and foreign-body giant cells; medium-size deposits were surrounded by just a thin layer of macrophages; and small deposits were not associated with any reaction in the surrounding tissue . Projections of the cellular soft membrane, known as granulomas, were seen in six patients . The granulomas were composed of macrophages, foreign-body giant cells, lymphocytes, and blood cells . A thin layer of fibrous connective tissue was occasionally present around the foreign-body membrane, but the thick fibrous capsule, which has been described in connection with silicone implants, was completely absent . The gel changes could be correlated to neither time since gel injection nor a history of recent injury or inflammation . It is concluded that the polyacrylamide hydrogel Interfall, which has been used in the former Soviet Union, is stable over time, nondegradable, confined to the breast, and diffusion and migration resistant . When the hydrogel is injected in medium-size or large quantities a cellular foreign-body reaction occurs, but in small amounts it is capable of splitting up individual connective tissue fibers and fat cells, substituting for the extracellular connective tissue matrix without eliciting any foreign-body reaction . As far as these data are concerned, polyacrylamide hydrogel is well tolerated by the breast and does not give rise to severe fibrosis, pain, or capsule shrinkage . However, to determine safety with more certainty, a larger sample size would be necessary.

Health Phys, 2003 Apr, 84(4), 518 - 25
Results of surveys at United States pulp and paper mills for the presence of scales and precipitates containing naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM); Fisher RP et al.; Field surveys were carried out at sixteen pulp and paper mills in the United States--seven kraft process, two sulfite process, and seven recycling process mills--for the presence of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) in precipitates and scales . NORM was detected at three of the kraft mills, one sulfite mill, and none of the recycling mills . At one of the kraft mills, the NORM was associated with a commercial aluminum sulfate ("alum") slurry used on the paper machines and in intake water treatment . The maximum activity level of this alum scale was 252,000 Bq kg(-1) (6,800 pCi g(-1)) 228Ra . At two kraft mills, NORM was associated with precipitates in the bleach plant . The measured NORM activity in samples of these scales was approximately 44,400 Bq kg(-1) (1,200 pCi g(-1)) 226Ra . Where NORM was detected at a sulfite mill, the NORM deposits were found adhering tightly to the surfaces of brownstock washers . Although samples were not removed for radionuclide analysis, survey readings at the drum surface were 26 nC kg(-1) h(-1) (100 microR h(-1)) with a scintillation counter and 2,200 cpm with a Geiger-Muller counter . At all mills, exposure rate measurements and risk assessment calculations indicated that it would be highly unlikely for any worker's annual exposure to exceed 1 mSv (100 mrem) (the Nuclear Regulatory Commission limit for untrained workers) due to exposure to these materials.

Environ Technol, 2003 Mar, 24(3), 319 - 27
Preparation and characterisation of polyaluminium silicate chloride coagulant; Song YH et al.; To improve the coagulation efficiency for water treatment purposes, a composite aluminium-silicon coagulant, the polyaluminium silicate chloride was prepared and characterised . The preparation process included the preparation of polyaluminium chloride and polysilicic acid followed by the compounding of the two solutions . The prepared polyaluminium silicate chloride coagulant solution had an aluminium concentration of 0.10 mole per litre, hydroxyl to aluminium molar ratios between 0.5 and 2.0, and silicon to aluminium molar ratios between 0.075 and 0.075 . Aluminium-27 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photon correlation spectroscopy, streaming current measurement, jar tests and pilot-scale coagulation tests were employed to study the aluminium speciation, particle size distribution, electrokinetic and coagulation properties of this composite coagulant . In comparison with polyaluminium chloride, polyaluminium silicate chloride contains less polynuclear aluminium {AlO4Al12(OH)24(H2O)12}7+ and shows smaller charge neutralisation capacity . However, its particle size shows a significant increase, which enhances the coagulation efficiency . The results show that polyaluminium silicate chloride is an efficient composite coagulant for water treatment.

Environ Technol, 2003 Mar, 24(3), 299 - 308
Treatment options for microcystin toxins: similarities and differences between variants; Newcombe G et al.; Over sixty variants of the blue-green algal toxin microcystin have been identified . The two microcystin variants LR and LA vary in only one amino group ie . arginine for microcystin LR and alanine for microcystin LA . In the literature to date, the general consensus has been that m-LR and m-LA should respond similarly to a range of water treatment processes . This is the case for ozonation and biodegradation by organisms colonising granular activated carbon filters; there is negligible difference in the response to these processes between the two variants . However, the adsorption of m-LR onto activated carbon is significantly higher than that of m-LA . This result is surprising as m-LA has a lower molecular weight, and is more hydrophobic, factors that would be expected to favour the adsorption of this compound over m-LR . This trend is also seen for the variants RR and YR . The effect is seen on both negatively and positively charged carbons, indicating that the difference between the variants is not caused by electrostatic interactions with the carbon surface . Electrostatic shielding experiments suggest that electrostatic repulsion between the adsorbed m-LA molecules, with a net charge of -2, may be responsible for the low adsorption . The other variants tested have a lower net charge and therefor experience lower intermolecular repulsion in the adsorbed state.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(5), 83 - 90
Elucidation and control of biofilm formation processes in water treatment and distribution using the Unified Biofilm Approach; van der Kooij D et al.; Controlling biological processes in water treatment and distribution is a major challenge to water supply companies . In the Netherlands, the use of chlorine-based disinfectants in water treatment is limited as much as possible and treated water is distributed without disinfectant residual in most cases . Biofilm formation processes in water treatment and distribution are studied using adenosinetriphosphate (ATP) as the parameter for active biomass . ATP measurements are applied to assess biofilm concentrations in distribution systems, in the biofilm monitor to determine the biofilm formation rate of treated water, in the biomass production potential test to determine the effect of pipe materials on microbial growth and in membrane systems to quantify biofouling . The use of a single parameter enables to compare biofilm concentrations in all situations and contributes to the understanding and control of biofilm formation processes in water treatment and distribution . This approach has been designated as the Unified Biofilm Approach.

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2004 Jan, 63(4), 466 - 73 Epub 2003 Apr 08.
Community structure of microbial biofilms associated with membrane-based water purification processes as revealed using a polyphasic approach; Chen CL et al.; The microbial communities of membrane biofilms occurring in two full-scale water purification processes employing microfiltration (MF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes were characterized using a polyphasic approach that employed bacterial cultivation, 16S rDNA clone library and fluorescence in situ hybridization techniques . All methods showed that the alpha-Proteobacteria was the largest microbial fraction in the samples, followed by the gamma-Proteobacteria . This suggested that members of these two groups could be responsible for the biofouling on the membranes studied . Furthermore, the microbial community structures between the MF and RO samples were considerably different in composition of the most predominant 16S rDNA clones and bacterial isolates from the alpha-Proteobacteria and only shared two common groups ( Bradyrhizobium, Bosea) out of more than 17 different bacterial groups observed . The MF and RO samples further contained Planctomycetes and Fibroacter/ Acidobacteria as the second predominant bacterial clones, respectively, and differed in minor bacterial clones and isolates . The community structure differences were mainly attributed to differences in feed water, process configurations and operating environments, such as the pressure and hydrodynamic conditions present in the water purification systems.

Cad Saude Publica, 2003 Jan-Feb, 19(1), 61 - 7 Epub 2003 Apr 01.
{Operational control of water fluoridation in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil}; Maia LC et al.; The aim of this study was to evaluate the operational control of water fluoridation at the city water supply plant in Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from January to December 2000 . The water treatment supervisor filled out a questionnaire on the control of water fluoridation . In addition, water samples were collected every two weeks for fluoride analysis before and after treatment . Samples were analyzed by an independent laboratory using an ion-specific electrode . According to the water treatment supervisor, the entire process for controlling fluoride concentration in the water was rigorous and complied with Brazilian guidelines, but according to testing, 96% of samples were inadequate in terms of risks/benefits of fluoride use from water . The information obtained from the plant supervisor and the test data were thus mutually inconsistent . Based on these data, an independent water fluoride concentration control program is needed to ensure the benefits of dental caries prevention for the population.

Water Res, 2003 Apr, 37(8), 1691 - 710
Responses in sediment bioassays used in the Netherlands: can observed toxicity be explained by routinely monitored priority pollutants?
Lahr J, Maas-Diepeveen JL, Stuijfzand SC, Leonards PE, Druke JM, Lucker S, Espeldoorn A, Kerkum LC, van Stee LL, Hendriks AJ.
In order to identify the cause of toxicity in sediments and suspended matter, a large number of samples with different degrees of contamination was taken at various locations in The Netherlands . Standard acute bioassays were carried out with the bacterium Vibrio fischeri, the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and the anostracan Thamnocephalus platyurus . Chronic standard tests were performed using the water flea Daphnia magna and larvae of the midge Chironomus riparius . Some novel bioassays were performed as well . Most toxic effects observed in standard bioassays with sediments from polluted sediments (class 3 and 4 on a scale of 0-4 according to the Dutch criteria) could be partly explained by toxic concentrations of known persistent priority pollutants, mainly heavy metals and occasionally polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . In some of the samples, ammonia toxicity was a confounding factor during testing . Suspended matter from the Meuse river at Eijsden, which may be considered as 'new' sediment (pollution class 2), was moderately to highly toxic in almost all bioassays . This could have been associated with a combination of heavy metals, PAHs and ammonia . At two locations from the Lake IJssel area with no apparent persistent pollution, moderate and strong effects were nonetheless observed in invertebrate tests . This might have been due to agricultural run-off of pesticides, which are not routinely measured in sediments . A few effects on V . fischeri in canals and a small stream could not be explained with standard chemical analysis, but seemed associated with the outlets of sewage water treatment plants and industrial effluents . Additional chemical analysis of pore water samples from five selected sediments yielded more identified substances such as phtalates, decanes, cosanes and fragrances, but it was estimated that their contribution to the effects observed on V . fischeri, D . magna and C . riparius was negligible.

Water Res, 2003 Feb, 37(3), 585 - 8
A permeability-controlled microfiltration membrane for reduced fouling in drinking water treatment; Meier-Haack J et al.; A novel surface-modified polypropylene microfiltration membrane is investigated for its potential use in drinking water treatment . The flux decline rate of the modified membrane is substantially lower than the original polypropylene membrane for filtration of a soft, high-natural organic matter (NOM) surface water because a progressive adjustment in membrane permeability counteracts the flux decline due to fouling . In general, the prospects for reduced flux decline by membrane modification depend upon the characteristics of raw water such as hardness, particulate and NOM properties and concentration, and pretreatment strategies.

Prim Care, 2002 Dec, 29(4), 1027 - 48
Wilderness medicine; Townes DA; Wilderness medicine is not a single entity . It encompasses clinical practice, instruction, and research as they pertain to wilderness settings . Clinical practice often takes place in removed settings far from traditional medical resources and facilities . Many of the conditions treated are unique to wilderness medicine . Decisions commonly are based on limited information . Practitioners of wilderness medicine must combine specialized training, resourcefulness, and improvisation . Instruction and research in wilderness medicine often are directed at clinical practice, with the focus on maximizing patient outcome . Preparation and planning are the best methods of reducing illness and injury; these involve conditioning and choosing clothing and equipment, including the medical kit . Conditioning should mimic the type of trip or activity, because choice will depend on the type, complexity, and duration of the trip, the anticipated environmental conditions, and specific needs of the group . Equipment should be designed for the type of activity, in good working condition, and familiar to the members of the group . The medical kit should include basic medical supplies, with additional supplies and equipment depending on the specific trip, the anticipated needs of the group, and their level of medical training and expertise . Once in the wilderness, the focus shifts from preparation and planning to prevention of illness and injury . This includes the use of safety equipment, appropriate shelter, water treatment, and location knowledge . The most common methods of water treatment are mechanical filters, chemicals, and heat . When an injury or illness does occur in the wilderness, proper assessment of the patient is essential to determine both the appropriate treatment and the need for evacuation to definitive care . This is best accomplished with an organized, systematic approach . The decision of what treatment should be initiated and if the patient requires evacuation to definitive care often is difficult . There are four phases of an SAR event: location, access, stabilization, and evacuation . Evacuation may require the assistance of organized search and rescue services.

Am J Med, 2003 Mar, 114(4), 288 - 93
Medical risks of wilderness hiking; Boulware DR et al.; PURPOSE: We sought to determine the extent to which injuries and illnesses limit long-distance or endurance outdoor recreational activities . METHODS: In a prospective surveillance study, 334 persons who hiked the Appalachian Trail for at least 7 days (mean {+/- SD} length of hike, 140 +/- 60 days) in 1997 were interviewed . At the end of their hike, subjects completed a questionnaire on injuries, illnesses, water purification methods, and hygiene practices . RESULTS: Of the 280 backpackers who responded (a combined 38,940 days of wilderness exposure), 69% (n = 192) achieved their goal . The most important reasons for ending a hike prematurely were injury, time limitation, and psychosocial reasons . The most common medical complaints were feet blisters (64%; n = 180), diarrhea (56%, n = 156), skin irritation (51%, n = 143), and acute joint pain (36%, n = 102) . The incidence of vector-borne disease was 4% (n = 11); physician-diagnosed Lyme disease was the most common, and 24% of hikers (n = 68) reported tick bites . The risk of diarrhea was greater among those who frequently drank untreated water from streams or ponds (odds ratio {OR} = 7.7; 95% confidence interval {CI}: 2.7 to 23; P <0.0001), whereas practicing "good hygiene" (defined as routine cleaning of cooking utensils and cleaning hands after bowel movements) was associated with a decreased risk (OR = 0.46; 95% CI: 0.22 to 0.97; P =0.04) . CONCLUSION: Diarrhea is the most common illness limiting long-distance hikers . Hikers should purify water routinely, avoiding using untreated surface water . The risk of gastrointestinal illness can also be reduced by maintaining personal hygiene practices and cleaning cookware.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Mar 1, 37(5), 1016 - 24
Oxidation of pharmaceuticals during ozonation and advanced oxidation processes; Huber MM et al.; This study investigates the oxidation of pharmaceuticals during conventional ozonation and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) applied in drinking water treatment . In a first step, second-order rate constants for the reactions of selected pharmaceuticals with ozone (k(O3)) and OH radicals (k(OH)) were determined in bench-scale experiments (in brackets apparent k(O3) at pH 7 and T = 20 degrees C): bezafibrate (590 +/- 50 M(-1) s(-1)), carbamazepine (approximately 3 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)), diazepam (0.75 +/- 0.15 M(-1) s(-1)), diclofenac (approximately 1 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)), 17alpha-ethinylestradiol (approximately 3 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)), ibuprofen (9.6 +/- 1.0 M(-1) s(-1)), iopromide (<0.8 M(-1) s(-1)), sulfamethoxazole (approximately 2.5 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)), and roxithromycin (approximately 7 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1)) . For five of the pharmaceuticals the apparent k(O3) at pH 7 was >5 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1), indicating that these compounds are completely transformed during ozonation processes . Values for k(OH) ranged from 3.3 to 9.8 x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) . Compared to other important micropollutants such as MTBE and atrazine, the selected pharmaceuticals reacted about two to three times faster with OH radicals . In the second part of the study, oxidation kinetics of the selected pharmaceuticals were investigated in ozonation experiments performed in different natural waters . It could be shown that the second-order rate constants determined in pure aqueous solution could be applied to predict the behavior of pharmaceuticals dissolved in natural waters . Overall it can be concluded that ozonation and AOPs are promising processes for an efficient removal of pharmaceuticals in drinking waters.

Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 2003, 177, 123 - 200
Disposal and degradation of pesticide waste; Felsot AS et al.; Generation of pesticide waste is inevitable during every agricultural operation from storage to use and equipment cleanup . Large-scale pesticide manufacturers can afford sophisticated recovery, treatment, and cleanup techniques . Small-scale pesticide users, for example, single farms or small application businesses, struggle with both past waste problems, including contaminated soils, and disposal of unused product and equipment rinsewater . Many of these problems have arisen as a result of inability to properly handle spills during, equipment loading and rinsewater generated after application . Small-scale facilities also face continued problems of wastewater handling . Old, obsolete pesticide stocks are a vexing problem in numerous developing countries . Pesticide waste is characterized by high concentrations of a diversity of chemicals and associated adjuvants . Dissipation of chemicals at elevated concentrations is much slower than at lower concentrations, in part because of microbial toxicity and mass transfer limitations . High concentrations of pesticides may also move faster to lower soil depths, especially when pore water becomes saturated wish a compound . Thus, if pesticide waste is not properly disposed of, groundwater and surface water contamination become probable . The Waste Management Hierarchy developed as an Australian Code of Practice can serve as a guide for development of a sound waste management plan . In order of desirability, the course of actions include waste avoidance, waste reduction, waste recycling, waste treatment, and waste disposal . Proper management of pesticide stocks, including adequate storage conditions, good inventory practices, and regular turnover of products, . will contribute to waste avoidance and reduction over the long-term . Farmers can also choose to use registered materials that have the lowest recommended application rates or are applied in the least volume of water . Wastewater that is generated during equipment rinsing can be recycled by spraying it onto cropland, thus avoiding a soil contamination problem . If it is not feasible to spray out rinsates, then water treatment becomes necessary . However, for small waste generators, practical technology is still too experimental and not easily implemented on an individual farm or at a small application business . Nevertheless, research has been quite active in application of advanced oxidation processes (UV/ozonation: photoassisted Fenton reaction: photocatalysis using TiO2) . Obsolete pesticide stocks in developing countries are being packaged and shipped to developed countries for incineration . Contaminated soil can also be incinerated, but this is not practical nor affordable for small waste generators . Chemical degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides may be amenable to dechlorination by alkali polyethylene glycol treatment, but further study is needed to make the technique practical for small waste generators . Contaminated soils may be amenable to cleanup by one of several biological treatment methods, including composting, landfarming, and bioaugmentation/ biostimulation . Composting and landfarming (which may be used in combination with biostimulation) may be the most practical of the biological methods that is immediately ready for implementation by small-scale pesticide waste generators.

Photochem Photobiol Sci, 2002 Jul, 1(7), 520 - 5
Degradation of nitroaromatic compounds by the UV-H2O2 process using polychromatic radiation sources; Garcia Einschlag FS et al.; The UV-H2O2 process, a standard advanced oxidation process (AOP) for water treatment, has been applied to the degradation of a series of nitroaromatic compounds (nitrobenzene, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, 2,4-dinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 4-nitrophenol and 4-chloro-3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid) using polychromatic radiation sources . The optimal concentration of hydrogen peroxide ({H2O2}OPT) leading to the fastest degradation rate of a given substrate (S) was determined experimentally and estimated using a simplified kinetic model based on the main reactions involved in the first stages of the oxidation . We have shown that, under conditions of monochromatic irradiation, the ratio ROPT (= {H2O2}OPT/{S}0) is given by a simple mathematical expression containing only a few parameters, whereas, under conditions of polychromatic irradiation, ROPT is expressed by a complex mathematical equation (involving the spectral distribution of the lamp emission and the absorption spectra of H2O2 and the substrate) . Two numerical analysis procedures are proposed for obtaining the bimolecular rate constants for the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with a substrate (kS) from this equation . The rate constants, kS, determined for the substrates investigated in this work are in agreement with the expected reactivity trend, taking into account the effects of substituents on the distribution of electron density in the aromatic ring . The methods proposed in this work offer a double advantage: i) a standard AOP may be used to evaluate the rate constants of reaction of substrates with hydroxyl radicals under polychromatic as well as under monochromatic irradiation, ii) optimal amounts of additive may be obtained using only a few parameters as predictive tools.

Chemosphere, 2003 Jan, 50(1), 137 - 43
Tolerance and uptake of heavy metals by Trichoderma atroviride isolated from sludge; Lopez Errasquin E et al.; A strain of Trichoderma atroviride, isolated from sewage sludge obtained from a water treatment plant located in Madrid (Spain), has been studied for tolerance to heavy metals (copper, zinc and cadmium) and for its capacities to uptake these metals . It was found that this fungus is capable of surviving high metal concentrations, apparently as a result of the natural selection of resistant cells . Also, growth and metal uptake have been assayed in samples where the fungus was cultured in the presence of a single metal and in the presence of a combination of two or three cations, where additive and synergistic interactions were observed . Finally, metal uptake by this strain has been studied under different nutritional conditions . It was found that the highest values of metals removal were achieved for autolysed mycelia while the lowest levels were observed in the presence of glucose.

Clin Infect Dis, 2003 Apr 1, 36(7), 903 - 8 Epub 2003 Mar 18.
Cryptosporidium species: new insights and old challenges; Leav BA et al.; Cryptosporidium species are protozoan parasites that cause mainly enteric illnesses in humans and other animals . The mode of transmission is most commonly waterborne, but other sources of infection, including foodborne and person-to-person spread, have been documented . The environmental form of the parasite is resistant to most water purification methods, including chlorination . Cryptosporidium infection usually causes a self-limited diarrheal illness but can be life-threatening in immunocompromised individuals . There is no effective therapy for cryptosporidiosis.

Environ Technol, 2003 Jan, 24(1), 1 - 9
Examination of plant performance and filter ripening with particle counters at full-scale water treatment plants; O'Leary KC et al.; Filter performance has traditionally been assessed using turbidity as the main water quality parameter . However interest in process optimization and the ability to accurately monitor filtration and particle removal has led to particle counting becoming increasingly more popular . The objective of this research was to evaluate filtration performance and filter ripening at four full-scale water treatment plants . Most of the plants investigated in this study were capable of achieving 2 log total particle removal as well as an effluent turbidity of 0.1 NTU . In some cases 2 log removal was achieved in the lower particle size ranges of 2-5 and 5-10 microm . Log removals in this study compare particle counts in the filtered and raw water . For water treatment plants that do not filter to waste, the ripening period following a filter backwash represents a time where the plant may be most vulnerable to breakthrough of waterborne pathogens . For the plants studied, the ripening period which was defined as the time required to reach peak particle removal and a turbidity of 0.1 NTU, were very similar in duration . The ripening period generally lasted for one hour after the backwash event had been completed . Because the times to reach 2 log total particle removal and 0.1 NTU are similar, the practice of using 0.1 NTU turbidity as a measure of filter ripening may be a useful benchmark for utilities that do not have particle counters.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(3), 255 - 9
Evaluation of Bacillus subtilis and coliphage MS2 as indicators of advanced water treatment efficiency; Huertas A et al.; The assessment of water treatment facilities for their efficiency using alternate indicators is of paramount importance . Current methods for assessing efficiency are limited by the specific characteristics of the microorganisms, such as their different sensitivities to disinfectants . A pilot study was carried out to compare different treatment scenarios for the future upgrade of the Sergio Cuevas Water Treatment plant (the largest in the Caribbean) in San Juan, Puerto Rico . The treatment units under investigation included a coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation unit, dual-media filters, micro-filtration units, intermediate ozone injection and contact columns as well as a biological filtration unit . The plant was challenged at different stages of treatment with Bacillus subtilis spores and MS2 coliphages in an attempt to test them as possible alternate indicators of treatment plant performance . These organisms were chosen because of their resistance to disinfection and desiccation, their low analysis costs and ease of detection . The removal of spores and coliphages by each treatment unit tested was calculated by seeding a known concentration (5-7 log10) of spores and coliphages and following the removal or disinfection rates . The seeded indicators were detected using traditional culture techniques . Ballasted clarification was shown to be highly efficient at removing 99.1% (approximately 3 log10) of the spores and 85.1% (approximately 0.86 log10) of MS2 . Ozone treatment inactivated 80.37% (approximately 1.4 log10) spores and 99.95% (approximately 3.07 log10) coliphages . The coliphage inactivation rate obtained confirmed data obtained by previous studies indicating that MS2 was less resistant to ozonation than B subtilis spores . The membrane technology had the best efficiency in terms of physical removal of spores achieving over 99.9% (> 3 log10) removal . Coliphage removal mechanisms remain to be determined and will be a future focus of the study . Preliminary results indicate that aerobic spores and coliphages may be useful as indicators to determine the efficiency of different drinking water treatment technologies.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(3), 241 - 7
Quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in surface water treatment; Medema GJ et al.; Quantitative microbiological risk assessment requires quantitative data to assess consumer exposure to pathogens and the resulting health risk . The aim of this study was to evaluate data sets on the occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in raw water and on the removal of model organisms (anaerobic spores, bacteriophages) to perform such a risk assessment . A tiered approach was used by first calculating approximate point estimates and when the point estimate was close to the required safety level (10(4) annual risk of infection), fitting the data to probability distributions and Monte Carlo analysis to calculate the distribution of the risk of infection . Sensitivity analysis showed that the variability in the Cryptosporidium data in raw water (largely introduced by the variability of the recovery efficiency of the detection method) determined most of the variance in the risk estimate.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(3), 185 - 90
Inactivation differences of microorganisms by low pressure UV and pulsed xenon lamps; Otaki M et al.; UV disinfection has been applied to water treatment in recent years with low-pressure and medium-pressure UV lamps mainly used as the light source . In general, UV disinfection is considered to be inefficient with water of high turbidity because of inhibition of light penetration . Additionally, photoreactivation may be a problem that should be considered in case a disinfected water is discharged to the environment where sunlight causes reactivation . Recently, other types of lamps have been proposed including a flush-type lamp (such as a pulsed-xenon lamp) that emits high energy and wide wavelength intermittently . In this study, the difference between inactivation efficiencies by low-pressure UV (LPUV) and pulsed-xenon (PXe) lamps was investigated using two coliphage types and three strains of Escherichia coli . PXe had a suppressive effect on photoreactivation rate of the E . coli strains even though there was no significant effect on inactivation rate and maximum survival ratio after photoreactivation . PXe also had a benefit when applied to high turbidity waters as no tailing phenomena were observed in the low survival ratio area although it was observed in LPUV inactivation . This efficiency difference was considered to be due to the difference in irradiated wavelength of both lamps.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(2), 135 - 40
New chalcogenide glass chemical sensors for S2- and dissolved H2S monitoring; Miloshova M et al.; A non-optimised treatment of wastewaters containing organic and biological substances is very often accompanied by an accidental emanation of hydrogen sulphide H2S and therefore leads (i) to an undesirable odour in the vicinity of water treatment plants, and (ii) to a potential hazard for the neighbouring population . Fast, sensitive and reliable monitoring devices hence of significant importance . Chalogenide and chalcohalide glass are new promising membrane material for detection of heavy metal ions and toxic anions and particularly well adapted for continuous in situ monitoring and industrial process control . In the present paper, we will discuss analytical characteristics of new chalcogenide glass chemical sensors for detection of S2- and dissolved H2S, which slow reliable process control to be carried out at natural pH of wastewaters.

Environ Toxicol, 2003 Apr, 18(2), 78 - 93
The Palm Island mystery disease 20 years on: a review of research on the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin; Griffiths DJ et al.; Poisoning of humans resulting from consumption of water affected by the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii was first reported almost 20 years ago from Palm Island, northern Queensland, Australia . Since that time a great deal has been learned about this organism and cylindrospermopsin (CYN), the toxin it produces . This article reviews the information now available to us . It summarizes aspects of the chemistry of the toxin-now known to be produced by some cyanobacterial species other than C . raciborskii-and its biosynthesis and chemical synthesis in vitro, as well as its detection and measurement by chemical and biological assay . Some of the factors affecting toxin production by cultured isolates of C . raciborskii are reviewed and the conditions that cause its release from the cells described . The occurrence of CYN in water bodies and the management strategies used to minimize the harmful effects of the toxin are outlined . These include a range of water-treatment practices now in place to remove CYN-producing organisms and/or to neutralize the toxin together with some management procedures that have been tried, with varying degrees of success, to prevent buildup of blooms of the offending organisms . Some of the public-health considerations arising from exposure to water supplies affected by CYN are summarized along with the risk factors and guidance values as they are currently applied . Among the more recent developments described are those that come from the application of molecular techniques for characterizing toxic and nontoxic strains and for exploring the genetic aspects of CYN production .

Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2003 Jan-Feb, 25(1), 59 - 68
Effects of chronic prenatal ethanol exposure on cGMP content and glutamate release in the hippocampus of the neonatal guinea pig; Butters NS et al.; The glutamate-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-cGMP signal transduction system plays key neurotrophic and intercellular communication roles in the hippocampus . In the guinea pig, chronic prenatal ethanol exposure (CPEE), via maternal ethanol administration, suppresses the hippocampal glutamate-NMDA receptor-NOS pathway in the near-term fetus and decreases stimulated glutamate release in the hippocampus of young postnatal offspring, with no effect on NMDA receptor number or NOS activity . At present, the effect of CPEE on cGMP, a key second messenger of the glutamate signal transduction system, in the hippocampus is not known . The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that CPEE suppresses the hippocampal glutamate signal transduction system in the neonatal guinea pig at the levels of cGMP content and glutamate release . Timed pregnant guinea pigs received chronic oral administration of 4 g ethanol/kg maternal body weight/day, isocaloric-sucrose/pair-feeding, or water treatment throughout gestation . CPEE decreased brain and hippocampal weights at postnatal day (PD) 1 and PD 5 (P<.05) . CPEE did not affect basal, NMDA (1, 10, or 100 microM)-stimulated, or K(+) (15 or 30 mM)-stimulated cGMP content in transverse hippocampal slices at PD 1 or 5 . At 60 mM K(+), however, CPEE decreased stimulated hippocampal cGMP content at PD 1 (P<.05) and increased stimulated cGMP content at PD 5 (P<.05) . In transverse hippocampal slices, CPEE did not affect basal or K(+) (40 or 45 mM)-stimulated glutamate release at PD 1 or 5, or NMDA (50 microM)-stimulated glutamate release at PD 1, but did decrease NMDA (50 microM)-stimulated glutamate release at PD 5 (P<.05) . The data demonstrate that the effects of CPEE on stimulated cGMP content and glutamate release in the hippocampus of the neonatal guinea pig are stimulating agent- and age-dependent.

Kidney Int, 2003 Apr, 63(4), 1574 - 6
Prevention of biofilm formation in dialysis water treatment systems; Smeets E et al.; BACKGROUND: Biofilm formations in dialysis systems may be relevant because they continuously release bacterial compounds and are resistant against disinfection . The aim of the study was to compare the development of biofilm between a water treatment system based on a single reverse osmosis unit producing purified dialysate water {bacterial count, 350 colony-forming unit (CFU)/L} (center A) and a water treatment system based on double reverse osmosis and electric deionization, which is continuously disinfected with ultraviolet light and treated with ozone once a week (bacterial count, 1 CFU/L) (center B) . METHODS: During a period of 12 weeks, biofilm formation was studied in the tubing segment between the water piping and the dialysis module, using four dialysis monitors in each center . On a weekly basis, tubing samples of 5 cm length (N = 96) were taken under aseptic conditions and investigated for microbiologic contamination {cystine lactose electrolyte-deficient (CLED) Agar}, endotoxin levels {limulus amoeben lysate (LAL) gel test, cutoff value, 0.0125 EU/mL}, and biofilm formation {electron scanning microscopy (SEM)} . RESULTS: In center A, tube cultures were positive (>100 CFU/mL) in 16% of samples at 22 degrees C and 37 degrees C, compared to 3% of samples of center B (P < 0.05; chi-square) . Endotoxin levels were positive in 76% of the tubing samples of center A and negative in all of the samples of center B (P < 0.05) . Biofilm was present in 91.7% of the samples of center A (Fig . 1), and only present in one sample (taken after 9 weeks) of center B (P < 0.05) (Fig . 2) . In center A, biofilm formation was already observed after 1 week . CONCLUSION: In contrast to a standard water treatment system producing purified water, the use of a system producing highly purified water, which is also treated with regular disinfection procedures, leads to a significant reduction in biofilm formation, bacterial growth, and endotoxin levels in a highly vulnerable part of a water treatment system.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Feb 1, 37(3), 644 - 51
Fe(O)/lignitic coal: an efficient and mechanically stable reactive material for purification of water containing heavy metals, radionuclides, and nitroaromatics; Jenk U et al.; Mine water in the former uranium mine of Konigstein (Saxony, Germany) contains high concentrations of acid, sulfate, iron, aluminum, various heavy metals, radionuclides, and nitroaromatics . Research has been conducted for several years to establish the extent to which reduction of pollutant concentrations can be positively influenced and accelerated by storage of reactive materials in mine cavities . Investigations were made at different scales to test and select materials with respect to maximum fixation of contaminants (underground column tests) to examine hydraulic effects (underground large-scale column tests) and to optimize material properties (laboratory tests) . The investigations have shown that a mixture of Fe chips and lignitic coal is capable of efficiently cleaning acid and contaminant-containing mine water . The examined material is easily available and compatible with the environment . A large-scale application of such a reactive barrier is being considered for mine water treatment in the future and is deemed to be a reasonable conception for a safety component after conclusion of the flooding.

Emerg Infect Dis, 2003 Feb, 9(2), 229 - 33
Risk factors for sporadic giardiasis: a case-control study in southwestern England; Stuart JM et al.; To investigate risk factors for sporadic infection with Giardia lamblia acquired in the United Kingdom, we conducted a matched case-control study in southwest England in 1998 and 1999 . Response rates to a postal questionnaire were 84% (232/276) for cases and 69% (574/828) for controls . In multivariable analysis, swallowing water while swimming (p<0.0001, odds ratio {OR} 6.2, 95% confidence intervals {CI} 2.3 to 16.6), recreational fresh water contact (p=0.001, OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.9 to 15.9), drinking treated tap water (p<0.0001, OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.1 to 1.5 for each additional glass per day), and eating lettuce (pc=0.01, OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.2 to 4.3) had positive and independent associations with infection . Although case-control studies are prone to bias and the risk of Giardia infection is minimized by water treatment processes, the possibility that treated tap water is a source of sporadic giardiasis warrants further investigation.

Environ Monit Assess, 2003 Mar, 82(3), 265 - 80
Environmental monitoring of carbaryl applied in urban areas to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter in California; Walters J et al.; Carbaryl insecticide was applied by ground spray to plants in urban areas to control a serious insect pest the glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata (Say), newly introduced in California . To assure there are no adverse impacts to human health and the environment from the carbaryl applications, carbaryl was monitored in tank mixtures, air, surface water, foliage and backyard fruits and vegetables . Results from the five urban areas - Porterville, Fresno, Rancho Cordova, Brentwood and Chico - showed there were no significant human exposures or impacts on the environment . Spray tank concentrations ranged from 0.1-0.32% . Carbaryl concentrations in air ranged from none detected to 1.12 microg m(-3), well below the interim health screening level in air of 51.7 microg m(-3) . There were three detections of carbaryl in surface water near application sites: 0.125 ppb (parts per billion) from a water treatment basin; 6.94 ppb from a gold fish pond; and 1737 ppb in a rain runoff sample collected from a drain adjacent to a sprayed site . The foliar dislodgeable residues ranged from 1.54-7.12 microg cm(-2), comparable to levels reported for safe reentry of 2.4 to 5.6 microg cm(-2) for citrus . Carbaryl concentrations in fruits and vegetables ranged from no detectable amounts to 7.56 ppm, which were below the U.S . EPA tolerance, allowable residue of 10 ppm.

Water Res, 2003 Apr, 37(7), 1593 - 600
Occurrence of sessile Pseudomonas oryzihabitans from a karstified chalk aquifer; Dussart L et al.; Pseudomonas oryzihabitans is an uncommon pathogen that may cause opportunistic infections . Although it has been previously isolated from the environment, the source of human infection has not been well documented . In this study, we describe the presence of P . oryzihabitans adhering on suspended particulate matters recovered from karst groundwaters . The isolated pathogen was capable of forming biofilms on silicon supports and clay beads . Adherent P . oryzihabitans cells displayed a high resistance to chlorine as compared with the same organisms cultured in the planktonic mode . These results demonstrate that aquifer biofilms are potential environmental sources for water-born P . oryzihabitans infections and that bacterial attachment might affect drinking water purification .

J Food Prot, 2003 Feb, 66(2), 208 - 14
Efficacy of electrolyzed oxidizing water in inactivating Salmonella on alfalfa seeds and sprouts; Kim C et al.; Studies have demonstrated that electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water is effective in reducing foodborne pathogens on fresh produce . This study was undertaken to determine the efficacy of EO water and two different forms of chlorinated water (chlorine water from Cl2 and Ca(OCl)2 as sources of chlorine) in inactivating Salmonella on alfalfa seeds and sprouts . Tengram sets of alfalfa seeds inoculated with a five-strain cocktail of Salmonella (6.3 x 10(4) CFU/g) were subjected to 90 ml of deionized water (control), EO water (84 mg/liter of active chlorine), chlorine water (84 mg/liter of active chlorine), and Ca(OCl)2 solutions at 90 and 20,000 mg/liter of active chlorine for 10 min at 24 +/- 2 degrees C . The application of EO water, chlorinated water, and 90 mg/liter of Ca(OCl)2 to alfalfa seeds for 10 min reduced initial populations of Salmonella by at least 1.5 log10 CFU/g . For seed sprouting, alfalfa seeds were soaked in the different treatment solutions described above for 3 h . Ca(OCl)2 (20,000 mg/liter of active chlorine) was the most effective treatment in reducing the populations of Salmonella and non-Salmonella microflora (4.6 and 7.0 log10 CFU/g, respectively) . However, the use of high concentrations of chlorine generates worker safety concerns . Also, the Ca(OCl)2 treatment significantly reduced seed germination rates (70% versus 90 to 96%) . For alfalfa sprouts, higher bacterial populations were recovered from treated sprouts containing seed coats than from sprouts with seed coats removed . The effectiveness of EO water improved when soaking treatments were applied to sprouts in conjunction with sonication and seed coat removal . The combined treatment achieved 2.3- and 1.5-log10 CFU/g greater reductions than EO water alone in populations of Salmonella and non-Salmonella microflora, respectively . This combination treatment resulted in a 3.3-log10 CFU/g greater reduction in Salmonella populations than the control (deionized water) treatment.

J Agric Food Chem, 2003 Feb 26, 51(5), 1231 - 6
Warm water treatment in combination with modified atmosphere packaging reduces undesirable effects of irradiation on the quality of fresh-cut iceberg lettuce; Fan X et al.; Fresh-cut iceberg lettuce dipped in either 5 or 47 degrees C water for 2 min was packaged in modified atmosphere film bags and then exposed to 0, 0.5, 1, or 2 kGy gamma-radiation . Dipping cut lettuce in 47 degrees C water for 2 min prior to irradiation reduced antioxidant and phenolic accumulations induced by irradiation . Irradiation at 2 kGy increased cellular leakage and sogginess of cut lettuce dipped in both temperatures . Samples irradiated at 0.5 and 1 kGy had similar firmness and vitamin C and antioxidant contents as the controls after 14 and 21 days of storage except 1 kGy samples dipped at 47 degrees C had lower antioxidant contents than controls at 14 days of storage . Lettuce dipped at 47 degrees C and irradiated at 0.5 and 1 kGy had better overall visual quality and less tissue browning than corresponding irradiated samples dipped at 5 degrees C . These results suggest lettuce treated with warm water and irradiated at 0.5 or 1 kGy had the best sensory quality without significant loss in texture, vitamin C, or total antioxidants.

Zhong Yao Cai, 2001 May, 24(5), 323 - 4
{Water purification of breeding Hirudo nipponica with photosynthesis bacteria (PBS)}; Chen S et al.; This paper reported the studies on the water purification of breeding Hirudo nippanica with photosynthesis bacteria (PBS) . The results showed the PBS could reduce effectively the chemical dissolved oxygen, NH(4+)-N, vulcanization and organic matter of water bottom, as well as improve the dissolved oxygen.

Health Policy Plan, 2003 Mar, 18(1), 93 - 100
Fighting arsenic at the grassroots: experience of BRAC's community awareness initiative in Bangladesh; Hadi A; The study evaluates the arsenic mitigation project of BRAC in raising awareness of arsenic poisoning in rural communities in Bangladesh . Data came from selected project villages in south-western Bangladesh . Comparison villages were also selected from the same region . A total of 1240 randomly selected adults were interviewed in May 2000 . Findings reveal that the mitigation project played a significant, positive role in raising awareness of the safe water options, signs of arsenicosis, mode of transmission and the type of treatment . Testing tube-well water for arsenic created curiosity, innovation and interest in the community, and the water treatment plant became a symbol of the arsenic campaign . The study concludes that the behavioural change aspects of the arsenic mitigation project have the potential to significantly improve the level of understanding about arsenic contamination in the traditional communities.

J Chromatogr A, 2003 Jan 24, 985(1-2), 265 - 74
Determination of acidic drugs in sewage water by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry as tert.-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives; Rodriguez I et al.; A procedure is described for the determination of five acidic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals (ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, tolfenamic acid and diclofenac) in sewage water . The analytical method involves the concentration of water samples using a solid-phase extraction polymeric sorbent, functionalized with N-vinylpyrrolidone . Analytes were eluted with ethyl acetate . derivatized using N-methyl-N-(tert.-butyldimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) and analyzed by GC-MS . Influence of time, temperature and volume of MTBSTFA in the yield of the derivatization step were studied in detail using a factorial central composite design . Quantification limits of the analytical procedure for 500 ml of sewage water ranged from 20 to 50 ng/l . Recoveries from 90 to 115% were found for sewage water samples spiked with the studied compounds at the low ng/ml level . Results obtained for real samples show the presence of ibuprofen and naproxen in both influent and effluent of a sewage water treatment plant.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(1), 145 - 52
Coagulation of humic-kaolin-PACI aggregates; Lin WW et al.; Water treatment residual flocs are fractal-like aggregates made of many initial aggregates . We investigated in this study the coagulation dynamics for the humic-mineral-polyaluminium chloride (PACI) aggregates using small-angle light scattering techniques and the free-settling test . In contrast to reports in the literature, the presence of humic acid did not lead to a loose floc . Not only the time evolution of the coagulation dynamics, but also the final floc characteristics are only mildly affected by the humic acid . However, the strength of the formed floc does decline with humic acid, which leads to a turbid supernatant with high level of organics.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(1), 127 - 32
Evaluation of polyaluminium ferric chloride (PAFC) as a composite coagulant for water and wastewater treatment; Gao B et al.; Coal gangue is a kind of waste from coal mine processing . Polyaluminium ferric chloride (PAFC), a new type of inorganic composite coagulant, was prepared by using the waste from the Mineral Bureau of Yanzhou, China, hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate as raw materials . The relationship between the stability of ferric ion and the ionic strength of solution was investigated . The zeta potential of PAFC hydrolysis products of PAFC and the coagulation performances under different pH value were discussed . The turbidity removal properties of PAFC, polyaluminium (PAC) and polyferric sulfate (PFS) were compared, and the color removal effect of PAFC for the wastewater containing suspended dyes was also tested . In addition, the coagulation performance of PAFC for actual wastewaters from petrochemical plant, iron and steel plant, and coal mining processing was evaluated . The experimental results suggest that PAFC took a maximum value of zeta potential at about pH 5.8 on the positive side . Compared with PAC, PAFC gives better turbidity removal performance in the range of pH from 7.0 to 8.4 . PAFC gives good color removal performance on suspension dyes . PAFC also gives good wastewater purifying results for the actual wastewater . Therefore, PAFC is a high-effect and stable water treatment agent.

Water Sci Technol, 2003, 47(1), 29 - 32
Magnetic separation of iron and heavy metals from water; Navratil JD et al.; A magnetic separation device is being developed for removal of iron and heavy metals from water . The device consists of a column of supported magnetite surrounded by a movable permanent magnet . The mineral magnetite, or synthetically prepared iron ferrite (FeO x Fe2O3), is typically supported on various materials to permit adequate water passage through the column . In the presence of an external magnetic field, enhanced capacity was observed in using supported magnetite for removal of actinides and heavy metals from wastewater . The enhanced capacity is primarily due to magnetic filtration of colloidal and nanoscale particles along with some complex and ion exchange sorption mechanisms . This paper will review some previous work on the use of magnetite for wastewater treatment and discuss the development and potential of the magnetic nanoscale filtration/sorption process for water treatment . Recent research results are also presented on preliminary experimental studies using the process with water samples containing iron.

Bioresour Technol, 2003 Jun, 88(2), 95 - 101
Chemical composition of lipophilic extractives released during the hot water treatment of wheat straw; Sun RC et al.; Treatment of wheat straw with hot water at 80-95 degrees C for 0.5 h at pH 6.0-8.0 released 41.0-53.0% of the original lipophilic extractives . The chemical compositions of six lipophilic extractives were determined by GC on a medium-length high-temperature capillary column without derivatization, thus giving a method for direct determination of individual components of free fatty and resin acids, sterols, waxes, sterol esters, and triglycerides . The extracts contained 68.7-75.8% lipophilic substances, comprising mainly free fatty acids (25.8-48.4%), waxes (9.4-27.0%), sterols (4.1-8.0%), triglycerides (3.3-11.0%), and sterol esters (2.6-5.1%) . Minor amounts of diglycerides (0.3-0.5%), resin acid (0.5-3.1%), and phenolic compounds (0.9-3.6%) were also quantitatively determined in the extractives.

Environ Sci Technol, 2003 Jan 15, 37(2), 201 - 8
Environmental costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales; Pretty JN et al.; Eutrophication has many known consequences, but there are few data on the environmental and health costs . We developed a new framework of cost categories that assess both social and ecological damage costs and policy response costs . These findings indicate the severe effects of nutrient enrichment and eutrophication on many sectors of the economy . We estimate the damage costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales to be $105-160 million yr(-1) (pound 75.0-114.3 m) . The policy response costs are a measure of how much is being spent to address this damage, and these amount to $77 million yr(-1) pound 54.8 m) . The damage costs are dominated by seven items each with costs of $15 million yr(-1) or more: reduced value of waterfront dwellings, drinking water treatment costs for nitrogen removal, reduced recreational and amenity value of water bodies, drinking water treatment costs for removal of algal toxins and decomposition products, reduced value of nonpolluted atmosphere, negative ecological effects on biota, and net economic losses from the tourist industry . In common with other environmental problems, it would represent net value (or cost reduction) if damage was prevented at source . A variety of effective economic, regulatory, and administrative policy instruments are available for internalizing these costs.

J Chem Ecol, 2002 Dec, 28(12), 2377 - 98
Effect of nitrogen and water treatment on leaf chemistry in horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), and relationship to herbivory by flea beetles (Epitrix spp.) and tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta); Cipollini ML et al.; We studied the interaction between plants (horsenettle; Solanum carolinense) and herbivorous insects (flea beetles; Epitrix spp., and tobacco hornworm; Manduca sexta) by focusing on three questions: (1) Does variation in nitrogen availability affect leaf chemistry as predicted by the carbon-nutrient balance (CNB) hypothesis? (2) Does variation in plant treatment and leaf chemistry affect insect feeding? (3) Is there an interaction between the insect herbivores that is mediated by variation in leaf chemistry? For three successive years (1998-2001), we grew a set of clones of 10 maternal plants under two nitrogen treatments and two water treatments . For each plant in the summer of 2000, we assayed herbivory by hornworms in both indoor (detached leaf) and outdoor (attached leaf) assays, as well as ambient flea beetle damage . Estimates of leaf material consumed were made via analysis of digitized leaf images . We also assayed leaves for total protein, phenolic, and glycoalkaloid content, and for trypsin inhibitor, polyphenol oxidase, and peroxidase activity . Despite strong effects of nitrogen treatment on growth and reproduction, only total protein responded as predicted by CNB . Leaf phenolic levels were increased by nitrogen treatment, polyphenol oxidase activity was decreased, and other leaf parameters were unaffected . Neither hornworm nor flea beetle herbivory could be related to plant treatment or genotype or to variation in any of the six leaf chemical parameters . A negative relationship between flea beetle and hornworm herbivory was found, but was not apparently mediated by any of the measured leaf chemicals . Because leaf resistance was maintained in low nitrogen plants at the apparent expense of growth and reproduction, our results support the concept of a fitness cost of defense, as predicted by the optimal defense hypothesis.

Water Res, 2003 Mar, 37(5), 1111 - 7
Removal of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water treatment: a pilot-scale study; Hsu BM et al.; Giardia and Cryptosporidium have emerged as waterborne pathogens of concern for public health . The aim of this study is to examine both parasites in the water samples taken from three pilot-scale plant processes located in southern Taiwan, to upgrade the current facilities . Three processes include: conventional process without prechlorination (Process 1), conventional process plus ozonation and pellet softening (Process 2), and integrated membrane process (MF plus NF) followed conventional process (Process 3) . The detection methods of both parasites are modified from USEPA Methods 1622 and 1623 . Results indicated that coagulation, sedimentation and filtration removed the most percentage of both protozoan parasites . The pre-ozonation step can destruct both parasites, especially for Giardia cysts . The microfiltration systems can intercept Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts completely . A significant correlation between water turbidity and Cryptosporidium oocysts was found in this study . The similar results were also found between three kinds of particles (phi=3-5,5-8 and 8-10 microm) and Cryptosporidium oocysts.

ISA Trans, 2003 Jan, 42(1), 39 - 51
Neural networks for process control and optimization: two industrial applications; Bloch G et al.; The two most widely used neural models, multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function network (RBFN), are presented in the framework of system identification and control . The main steps for building such nonlinear black box models are regressor choice, selection of internal architecture, and parameter estimation . The advantages of neural network models are summarized: universal approximation capabilities, flexibility, and parsimony . Two applications are described in steel industry and water treatment, respectively, the control of alloying process in a hot dipped galvanizing line and the control of a coagulation process in a drinking water treatment plant . These examples highlight the interest of neural techniques, when complex nonlinear phenomena are involved, but the empirical knowledge of control operators can be learned.

Mar Pollut Bull, 2003 Jan, 46(1), 81 - 90
A field survey of chemicals and biological products used in shrimp farming; Graslund S et al.; This study documented the use of chemicals and biological products in marine and brackish water shrimp farming in Thailand, the world's top producer of farmed shrimp . Interviews were conducted with 76 shrimp farmers in three major shrimp producing regions, the eastern Gulf coast, the southern Gulf coast and the Andaman coast area . Farmers in the study used on average 13 different chemicals and biological products . The most commonly used products were soil and water treatment products, pesticides and disinfectants . Farmers in the southern Gulf coast area used a larger number of products than farmers in the other two areas . In the study, the use of more than 290 different chemicals and biological products was documented . Many of the pesticides, disinfectants and antibiotics used by the farmers could have negative effects on the cultured shrimps, cause a risk for food safety, occupational health, and/or have negative effects on adjacent ecosystems . Manufacturers and retailers of the products often neglected to provide farmers with necessary information regarding active ingredient and relevant instructions for safe and efficient use.

Med Trop (Mars), 2002, 62(4), 372 - 6
{Water supply for civilian populations in crisis and post-war situations: example of Mitrovica city (Kosovo) in 1999-2000}; Vandevelde T; After reviewing the effects of water shortage on sanitation, the author describes minimum water requirement in terms of both quantity and quality during emergency situations and recovery periods . This article also gives general guidelines for water treatment to cover vital needs and provide adequate sanitation to the victimized community . To illustrate his point, the author cites the water management program implemented by the humanitarian action branch of an industrial group in Mitrovica, Kosovo in 1999 and 2000.

Ground Water, 2003 Jan-Feb, 41(1), 48 - 56
Enhanced attenuation of septic system phosphate in noncalcareous sediments; Robertson WD; Review of phosphate behavior in four mature septic system plumes on similar textured sand has revealed a strong correlation between carbonate mineral content and phosphate concentrations . A plume on calcareous sand (Cambridge site, 27 wt % CaCO3 equiv.) has proximal zone PO4 concentrations (4.8 mg/L P average) that are about 75% of the septic tank effluent value, whereas three plumes on noncalcareous sand (Muskoka, L . Joseph, and Nobel sites, <1 wt % CaCO3 equiv.) have proximal zone phosphate concentrations (<0.1 mg/L P) that are consistently less than 2% of the effluent values . Phosphate attenuation at the noncalcareous sites appears to be an indirect result of the development of acidic conditions (site average pH 3.5 to 5.9) and elevated Al concentrations (up to 24 mg/L), which subsequently causes the precipitation of Al-P minerals such as variscite (AlPO4 x 2H2O) . This is supported by scanning electron microscope analyses, which show the widespread occurrence of (Al+P)--rich secondary mineral coatings on sand grains below the infiltration beds . All of these septic systems are more than 10 years old, indicating that these attenuation reactions have substantial longevity . A field lysimeter experiment demonstrated that this reaction sequence can be readily incorporated into engineered waste water treatment systems . We feel this important P removal mechanism has not been adequately recognized, particularly for its potential significance in reducing P loading from septic systems in lakeshore environments.

Chemosphere, 2003 Mar, 50(8), 1043 - 8
Improvement of DOC removal by multi-stage AOP-biological treatment; Fahmi et al.; The single and multi-stages advanced oxidation process (AOP)-biological treatments were evaluated to apply for drinking water treatment, especially for the water containing less susceptible dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to ozone, comparing with the ozonation-biological treatment . Minaga reservoir water and the secondary effluent from a Municipal wastewater treatment plant were used as dissolved organic matter (DOM) solutions . DOC removals after 60 min AOP-biological treatment were 62% and 41% in the Minaga reservoir water and the secondary effluent, respectively, whereas those in the ozonation-biological treatment only 40% and 15% of DOC were removed, respectively . The result indicated that the single-stage AOP-biological treatment could improve DOC removal in comparison with the single-stage ozonation-biological treatment . This is because the AOP mineralized both biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) produced in the early stage of oxidation and non-biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (NBDOC), whereas only BDOC was mineralized by further ozonation and NBDOC was not oxidized in the ozonation-biological treatment . The multi-stage treatment could not improve DOC removal in comparison with the single-stage treatment in the ozonation-biological treatment for the secondary effluent containing less susceptible DOC to ozone . However, the multi-stage AOP-biological treatment significantly reduced DOC and achieved 71% of DOC removal by 4 times repetition of 15 min oxidation, whereas DOC removal was 41% in the single-stage AOP-biological treatment for the same oxidation time . The improvement of DOC removal by the multi-stage AOP-biological treatment was due to BDOC removal as a radical scavenger by subsequent biological treatment in the early stage of oxidation and direct mineralization in the latter stage of oxidation .

Water Res, 2003 Feb, 37(4), 864 - 72
Selection of NF membrane to improve quality of chemically treated surface water; Liikanen R et al.; The requirement for higher quality drinking water necessitates the application of more efficient water treatment techniques . Nanofiltration is one promising option for enhanced water treatment, for example, in enhanced organic matter removal . The characteristics of different nanofiltration membranes vary remarkably, and the selection of a membrane has to be made according to the requirements of an application . In this study six nanofiltration membranes (NF70, NF255, NTR-7450, NTR-7410, Desal-5 and TFC-S) were evaluated in improving the quality of chemically pre-treated surface water in a pilot-scale process . The results indicate that the membrane with high organics removal and slightly reduced ion removal characteristics (NF255) performed best in terms of product water quality as well as membrane productivity and fouling . The most permeable membrane (NTR-7410) suffered intensive fouling and insufficient product water quality . An interesting finding was that the permeates of all the tested membranes possessed a significant potential for microbial growth, despite the low nutrient contents.

Anal Chem, 2003 Jan 1, 75(1), 111 - 7
A system for the direct determination of the nonvolatile organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and inorganic carbon in water samples through inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry; Maestre SE et al.; A new system has been developed for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) and inorganic carbon (IC) or total inorganic carbon (TIC) in waters . Only nonvolatile organic compounds can be detected through the present method . The system presented in this work is based on the measurement of the carbon atomic emission intensity in inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) . This way, the organic matter does not undergo any preoxidation step . A semiautomatic accessory connected to the spectrometer separates the different carbon fractions (i.e., organic and inorganic) . Because most of the solutions used in the present work did not contain suspended solid particles, the actual parameter that was determined was the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) . The present system exhibits good sensitivities compared to those provided by conventional TOC and IC determination methods . The limits of detection obtained in the present work have been 0.07 and 0.0007 mg/L C in terms of TOC and IC, respectively . Furthermore, the system is able to handle high-salt-content solutions . This fact suggests that it would be possible to analyze seawater samples, avoiding some of the problems encountered with conventional methods, such as system blocking or interferences . The TOC and IC values found for natural samples are very close to those measured using conventional methods . The ICP-AES method has been successfully used in two interesting applications: (i) monitoring the efficiency of a water treatment plant and (ii) determining the contents of dissolved carbon dioxide, on one hand, and that of carbonate and bicarbonate, on the other, in the same sample.

Adv Space Res, 2002, 30(4), 797 - 802
NASDA aquatic animal experiment facilities for Space Shuttle and ISS; Uchida S et al.; National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) has developed aquatic animal experiment facilities for NASA Space Shuttle use . Vestibular Function Experiment Unit (VFEU) was firstly designed and developed for physiological research using carp in Spacelab-J (SL-J, STS-47) mission . It was modified as Aquatic Animal Experiment Unit (AAEU) to accommodate small aquatic animals, such as medaka and newt, for second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2, STS-65) mission . Then, VFEU was improved to accommodate marine fish and to perform neurobiological experiment for Neurolab (STS-90) and STS-95 missions . We have also developed and used water purification system which was adapted to each facility . Based on these experiences of Space Shuttle missions, we are studying to develop advanced aquatic animal experiment facility for both Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) . c2002 COSPAR . Published by Elsevier Science Ltd . All rights reserved.

Sci Total Environ, 2003 Jan 20, 302(1-3), 157 - 66
Low trihalomethane formation in Korean drinking water; Yoon J et al.; Organics in water have the potential to generate harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) during the chlorination process . To clarify the regulatory implications of Korean THMs levels which appear to be significantly lower than those in the US where the Stage 1 and 2 D/DBPs rule has been promulgated, the characteristics of THMs formation were investigated on five major river waters in Korea . Water samples were taken from 12 water treatment plants on five major rivers that serve as drinking water sources for more than 90% of the Korean population . Trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP), total organic halide formation potential (TOXFP) and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV(254)) were determined and compared with those from US data . A survey of existing data {J Korean Soc Water Qual; 16(4) 2000b 431-443} provided evidence that THMs levels in treated drinking water in Korea were one-third of those reported in the US . The lower THMs levels were mainly attributable to the differences in the level and THMFP of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) . The DOC levels and the THMFP normalized to DOC were approximately 60% of those in the US . Results which combined could quantitatively account for the lower THMs levels (i.e . 0.6 x 0.6 approximately 1/3) in Korea . The observed Korean THMs levels were over-predicted by the THMs model () developed in the US . The level of THMFP was found to be similar if normalized for aromaticity as measured by UV(254) . These findings suggest that: (i) the case for more stringent THMs control is not likely to be a high priority among issues of drinking water quality in Korea; and (ii) significant variation of THMFP level may exist over different geographic regions; hence (iii) independent THMs models should be developed to make accurate predictions for different regions .

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(11-12), 389 - 94
Removal of mutagen precursor from wastewater by activated sludge and oxidation treatment; Takanashi H et al.; Removal of mutagen precursors from wastewaters was investigated . Removal extent of mutagen precursor was evaluated by the mutagen formation potential (MFP) which is mutagenicity of pollutants capable of forming mutagens when chlorinated under the conditions of water purification processes . 77% of the MFP reduction extent for a wastewater from a university was achieved by activated sludge treatment . However, no significant reduction of the MFP was observed for wastewater from food industry, a landfill leachate and mold extract . The Fenton oxidation treatment and ozone treatment are able to remove mutagen precursors from the mold extract and the wastewater from a university, respectively . 90% of the MFP reduction extent was achieved for the mold extract by the Fenton treatment . 54% of the MFP reduction extent was achieved for a sewage by the ozone treatment . Using the oxidation treatments, biodegradability of mutagen precursors in the mold extract and sewage was improved . From the viewpoint of treatment cost, the oxidation treatments should be oriented to the improvement of biodegradability.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(11-12), 285 - 9
Fate of coliphage in waste water treatment process and detection of phages carrying the Shiga toxin type 2 gene; Tanji Y et al.; Abundances of phages specific to Escherichia coli in the wastewater treatment process were analyzed . Relatively abundant coliphages were detected in sewage influent . Phages in the influent were found both suspended in liquid phase and attached on the solid particles . Phage concentration was not reduced in the settling tank without chemical agglutination . Anaerobic followed by aerobic treatment of the sewage reduced concentration of suspended phages . Almost no phage was detected as a suspended form in the aerobic tank . Most of the phages were detected as attaching form and were excluded by aggregation with sludge . Using an experimental approach based on the detection of Shiga toxin 2 (Stx 2) gene by a phage enrichment culture followed by nested PCR, bacteriophages carrying Stx 2 gene were detected in the influent, settling tank, and anaerobic tank . It was revealed that the presence of phages carrying Stx 2 gene is common in sewage and these phages are effectively eliminated through sewage treatment process.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(11-12), 217 - 24
Long-term experimental study of the aquatic plant system for polluted river water; Sato K et al.; Water purification using artificial wetlands and aquatic macrophyte is attracting attention as a purification technology that can create rich ecosystems while imposing a minimal load on the environment . Because an aquatic plant system requires a large surface area, design specifications and maintenance methods that can obtain the optimum purification effect per unit surface area must be established . Large experimental facilities have been constructed beside a polluted river flowing into Lake Kasumigaura and have been used for a three-year experiment using several kinds of aquatic plants . This report summarizes the characteristics and the design load of the aquatic plant system based on this study and results from other aquatic plant facilities.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(11-12), 165 - 70
Oilfield produced water treatment with surface-modified fiber ball media filtration; Yang Y et al.; In order to explore the PET fiber's potential as a filter medium to treat the water produced from oil production, modification technology was adopted to modify the fiber surface . After modification, the PET fiber surface was grafted by the -COOH, =NH and -OH groups . Therefore, the property of the modified fiber changed from oleophilic to hydrophilic, which makes the fiber easy to backwash . Water produced from atypical oil field in the north of China was treated on site with filter filled with this new fiber medium . The results are compared with the results from a filter filled with currently popular walnut medium, where the experiment conditions are the same as that of the fiber filter . When the velocity is lower than 15 m/h, the effluent from fiber filter can control the oil concentration < 2.4 mg/l, SS < 2.0 mg/l, and D50 < 2 microm, which meets the requirements for waterflood (water injection) into the ground . But the walnut medium filter can only control the oil concentration < 5 mg/l, TSS < 2.0 mg/l, and failed to control the d50 < 2 microm, which is the crucial deficiency of the walnut medium . The fiber medium still shows a great ability to control particles even with higher filtration velocity and worse influent . With a filtration velocity of 20 m/h and 36.4 microm d50 of influent, the d50 of the fiber filter effluent is 3.302 microm, but that of walnut filter is 10.74 microm . The reason for this is due to the compressibiliy of the fiber medium while the walnut median is incompressible . Recommendations for future studies on pilot-scale experiments to improve backwash and to determine operational parameters are presented.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(11-12), 1 - 6
Sustainable development of water services industry; Magara Y; The world population is expected to increase up to 8 billion by 2015 . Most of the cities in the world are scattered around the fresh water resources . These cities and villages have their own interests and they constitute a power order . Therefore, we have been trying to harmonize these cities and villages in the usage of fresh water resources and the discharging of wastewater as well, by using an engineering means of water treatment . However, fresh water resources, which are essential to our lives, have a constant amount of circulation with a period of one week to ten days . The science and technology of the water environment should recognize the limit of fresh water resources for the sustainable development of society, because the water service industries are the essential infrastructure of the community . In order to implement an appropriate risk management it is necessary to identify the goal of environmental management considering the social, natural and economical conditions . The energy-dependent technologies should be reconsidered to consume less energy and undertake more resource conservation engineering . Water science and technology cannot supply all the answers, therefore more comprehensive water management systems should be developed by other sectors, such as the food production industry.

Mar Pollut Bull, 2002 Dec, 44(12), 1327 - 35
Marine testing board for certification of ballast water treatment technologies; Champ MA; The proposed MTB is a process to expedite the implementation of international standards and regulations, and the subsequent testing, certification, and regulatory approval of new ballast water treatment ("control") technologies . This would expedite their acceptance in the global marketplace and reduce risks of shipowners following international regulation . The cost to test and evaluate and certify new ballast water treatment technologies for the global marketplace has been estimated to be less than US $1 per day per ship . It is time for the shipping industry, national regulatory bodies, and IMO to endorse the concept of the MTB and for the shipping industry to support a proactive cost-saving solution for sustainable shipping and protecting the environment from unwanted invasions of aquatic species with their potential negative impacts.

Environ Technol, 2002 Dec, 23(12), 1415 - 23
Removal of dissolved natural organic matter from source water with alum coagulation; Wang CS et al.; In this study, the effectiveness of enhanced alum coagulation for removal of natural organic matter (NOM) at various alum dosages and pH conditions was assessed for three source waters . Results from the laboratory jar tests at various conditions were compared . Tested pH ranged from 5.0 to 8.0, with alum dosages ranging from 60-120 mg l(-1) for removal of dissolved NOM with various concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and alkalinity . Alum coagulation profiles of the three source waters were also compared . For Cheng-Kung Water Treatment Plant (high DOC, high alkalinity), laboratory tests showed 50% DOC removal with alum dosage of 70-110 mg (-1) . after acidifying the raw water to pH = 6 . For Tai Lake Water Treatment Plant (high DOC, low alkalinity), laboratory tests showed that the highest DOC removal (approximately 50%) was achieved at an alum dosage of 80 mg l(-1) at pH = 8 (natural condition) . However, alum coagulation showed little DOC removal for source water from Kee-Lung River (low DOC, low alkalinity) . Higher alkalinity in Cheng-Kung Reservoir accounts for the necessity to acidify the raw water before enhanced coagulation for optimum DOC removal.

Environ Technol, 2002 Dec, 23(12), 1385 - 403
A field based evaluation of household arsenic removal technologies for the treatment of drinking water; Sutherland D et al.; Seven household treatment technologies for the removal of arsenic (Alcan, BUET, DPHE/DANIDA, Garnet, Sono, Stevens, Tetrahedron) were each evaluated using water from 63 different tube wells taken from 3 different regions of Bangladesh . The technologies that were evaluated were chosen from those that appeared user friendly, readily available and whose promoters were open to participate in the study . Arsenic concentrations in feed and treated waters were analysed by the PeCo 75 arsenic field test kit, AA-hydride generation and ICP-AES . Feed water arsenic concentrations were found to be up to 600 microg l(-1) . The more advanced treatment methods using: activated alumina (Alcan, BUET); metallic iron (Sono); anionic exchange resin (Tetrahedron) and iron coagulation (Stevens) were found to be most easily used and efficiently reduced arsenic concentrations to below the Bangladesh drinking water standard (0.05 mg As l(-1)) . The use of aluminium sulphate coagulants and permanganate oxidants in the DPHE/DANIDA technology introduced unacceptably high concentrations of aluminium and manganese into the treated waters and are not recommended in household water treatment applications . While arseric concentrations were initially considered to be of paramount importance, it became clear that such technologies can increase the risk of bacterial contamination in the treated water and this needs serious consideration as this could create a hazard much greater than the arsenic contained in the water . Ground waters sampled during the course of this study were mostly found to be bacteria free . To minimize any risks relating to bacterial contamination the addition of hypochlorite or the boiling of water is necessary.

Environ Technol, 2002 Dec, 23(12), 1337 - 46
Thermal regeneration of granular activated carbons using inert atmospheric conditions; San Miguel G et al.; Thermal regeneration is increasingly being used for the recovery of field-spent granular activated carbons (GAC) generated by the water treatment industry . Despite its commercial success, conventional methods using oxidising conditions (usually steam) are known to damage the porosity of the regenerated carbons, thus reducing their adsorption capacity and economic value . This paper presents a comparative investigation into the benefits of using inert conditions for the regeneration of field-spent GAC . For the purpose of this work, a sample of spent carbon was regenerated in nitrogen and in steam to different degrees of burn off . The resulting samples were analysed for their porosity and surface area characteristics using nitrogen gas adsorption, and for their aqueous adsorption capacities using phenol and methylene blue . Experimental results showed that steam was sightly more effective than nitrogen at regenerating the total micropore volume and BET surface area of the carbons . However, these benefits were largely counteracted by greater losses in the carbon yield and damage to the narrow microporosity . Carbons regenerated in nitrogen exhibited greater adsorption capacities for the adsorption of small molecular size compounds (phenol) from solution, while carbons regenerated in steam adsorbed larger molecular size compounds (methylene blue) more effectively . However, when product yields were taken into consideration, inert regeneration was found to produce significantly better results than steam regeneration . An optimum process temperature was determined to be 950 degrees C.

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2002 Dec, 67(6), 623 - 31
Outbreak of amebiasis in Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia, 1998; Barwick RS et al.; In 1998, we investigated a suspected outbreak of amebic liver abscesses caused by Entamoeba histolytica in the Republic of Georgia, using a case-control study . A questionnaire was administered and blood samples were obtained from cases and controls for serologic diagnosis . Medical records showed that E . histolytica infections were rarely diagnosed before 1998 . However, from July through September 1998, 177 cases of suspected amebiasis were identified . Of 52 persons who had diagnosed liver abscesses, 37 (71%) were confirmed serologically to have antibodies against E . histolytica, compared with 11 of 53 persons (20.8%) diagnosed with intestinal amebiasis . In addition, 9-14% of asymptomatic controls were seropositive . Logistic regression identified the fact that interruptions in the water supply, decreases in water pressure, and increased water consumption were significantly associated with infection . The data support the hypothesis that drinking water was the source of infection, either because of inadequate municipal water treatment or contamination of municipal water in the distribution system.

Toxicology, 2002 Dec 27, 181-182, 441 - 6
Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru-Brazil; Azevedo SM et al.; In February 1996, an outbreak of illness occurred at a hemodialysis clinic in Caruaru, Pernambuco State-Brazil . At this clinic 116 (89%) of 131 patients experienced visual disturbances, nausea, vomiting, and muscle weakness, following routine haemodialysis treatment . Subsequently, 100 patients developed acute liver failure . As of December 1996, 52 of the deaths could be attributed to a common syndrome now called 'Caruaru Syndrome' . Examination of previous years' phytoplankton counts showed that cyanobacteria were dominant in the water supply reservoir since 1990 . Analyses of carbon and other resins from the clinic's water treatment system plus serum and liver tissue of patients led to the identification of two groups of hepatotoxic cyanotoxins: microcystins (cyclic heptapeptides) in all of these samples and cylindrospermopsin (alkaloid hepatotoxic) in the carbon and resins . Comparison of victims symptoms and pathology with animal studies on these two cyanotoxins, leads us to conclude that the major contributing factor to death of the dialysis patients was intravenous exposure to microcystins, specifically microcystin-YR, -LR and -AR . In 2000, a review of the Brazilian regulation for drinking water quality, promoted by Brazilian Health Ministry with collaboration of PAHO, incorporated cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins into this new regulation as parameters that must to be monitored for water quality control.

Toxicology, 2002 Dec 27, 181-182, 147 - 50
Estrogenic effects in fish in The Netherlands: some preliminary results; Vethaak AD et al.; Recently, a large-scale field study in The Netherlands has focused on the effects of estrogenic contaminants on feral fish populations . The freshwater bream (Abramis brama) and the estuarine flounder (Platichthys flesus) were sampled at a large number of locations in the spring and autumn of 1999 . Concentrations of the yolk protein vitellogenin (VTG) in blood plasma of male flounders were small at most sites . At two sites, however, moderately elevated concentrations were found in autumn . Both sites were situated in the same industrial harbour zone also receiving effluent from sewage treatment works . At many sites VTG levels in male bream were significantly greater than at the control site . The greatest concentrations were observed in individuals collected from a small stream, close to the discharge of a relatively large municipal waste water treatment plant . This was also the only site where considerable intersex occurred; 37% of male bream exhibited ovotestes . Ovotestis was not observed in any of the male flounder captured . The results from The Netherlands are briefly discussed and compared with the well-known case studies in the UK.

Environ Int, 2002 Dec, 28(6), 457 - 65
Removal of NOM in the different stages of the water treatment process; Matilainen A et al.; Natural organic matter (NOM) is abundant in natural waters in Finland and in many ways affects the unit operations in water purification . In this study, the organic matter content in water in different stages of a full-scale treatment process over 1 year was measured . The full-scale treatment sequence, studied at the Rusko water treatment plant in Tampere, Finland, consisted of coagulation, flocculation, clarification by sedimentation or flotation, activated carbon (AC) filtration, and disinfection . High-performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) was used for separation to determine changes in the humic substances content during the purification process . In addition, total organic carbon (TOC), KMnO4-number, and UV-absorbance at wavelength 254 nm (UV254) were measured . High molecular weight (HMW) matter was clearly easier to remove in coagulation and clarification than low molecular weight (LMW) matter . Furthermore, depending on the regeneration of the activated carbon filters, activated carbon filtration was effective to a degree but did not remove most of the lowest molecular weight compounds . Significant correlation was established among HPSEC, KMnO4, UV254 absorbance, and TOC . HPSEC proved to be a fast and relatively easy method to estimate NOM content in water and, in fact, gave more information than traditional methods on the type of NOM in a water sample . It also helped the process performance follow-up.

Water Res, 2003 Jan, 37(2), 402 - 8
Analysis of trihalomethanes in drinking water using headspace-SPME technique with gas chromatography; Cho DH et al.; In many drinking water treatment plants, the chlorination process is one of the main techniques used for the disinfection of water . This disinfecting treatment leads to the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) such as chloroform, dichlorobromomethane, chlorodibromomethane and bromoform . In this study, headspace-solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME, 85 microm carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane fiber) technique was applied for the analysis of THMs in drinking water . The effects of experimental parameters such as kinds of SPME fiber, the volume ratio of sample to headspace, the addition of salts, magnetic stirring, extraction temperature, extraction time and desorption time on the analysis were investigated . Analytical parameters such as linearity, repeatability and limit of detection were also evaluated . The results of THMs from the survey of Seongnam (Korea) drinking water samples showed that the highest total trihalomethane and chloroform were 24.03 and 13.34 microg/l, which were well within the Korean drinking water quality standard of 100 and 80 microg/l, respectively.

J Environ Sci (China), 2002 Oct, 14(4), 541 - 6
Nitrogen and phosphorus removal under intermittent aeration conditions; Xia SQ et al.; A practice wastewater treatment plant was operated using intermittent aeration activated sludge process to enhance biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal . When the influent concentrations of CODCr, BOD5, TN, TP, NH3-N, TKN, and SS varied in a range of 207.5-1640 mg/L, 61.8-637 mg/L, 28.5-75.6 mg/L, 4.38-20.2 mg/L, 13.6-31.9 mg/L, 28.5-75.6 mg/L, and 111-1208 mg/L, the effluent means were less than 50 mg/L, 20 mg/L, 5 mg/L, 1.0 mg/L, 5 mg/L, 10 mg/L, and 20 mg/L, respectively . Based on a long time of operating results, this process is very suitable for nutrient biological removal for treating the municipal wastewater those water characteristics are similar as that of the Songjiang Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plant(SJMWTP).

MMWR Surveill Summ, 2002 Nov 22, 51(8), 1 - 47
Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1999-2000; Lee SH et al.; PROBLEM/CONDITION: Since 1971, CDC, the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) have maintained a collaborative surveillance system for the occurrences and causes of waterborne-disease outbreaks (WBDOs).This surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and effects of waterborne diseases on persons in the United States . REPORTING PERIOD COVERED: This summary includes data regarding outbreaks occurring during January 1999-December 2000 and previously unreported outbreaks occurring in 1995 and 1997 . DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM: The surveillance system includes data for outbreaks associated with drinking water and recreational water . State, territorial, and local public health departments are primarily responsible for detecting and investigating WBDOs and voluntarily reporting them to CDC on a standard form . The unit of analysis for the WBDO surveillance system is an outbreak, not an individual case of a waterborne disease . Two criteria must be met for an event to be defined as a WBDO . First, > or = 2 persons must have experienced a similar illness after either ingestion of drinking water or exposure to water encountered in recreational or occupational settings . This criterion is waived for single cases of laboratory-confirmed primary amebic meningoencephalitis and for single cases of chemical poisoning if water-quality data indicate contamination by the chemical . Second, epidemiologic evidence must implicate water as the probable source of the illness . RESULTS: During 1999-2000, a total of 39 outbreaks associated with drinking water was reported by 25 states . Included among these 39 outbreaks was one outbreak that spanned 10 states . These 39 outbreaks caused illness among an estimated 2,068 persons and were linked to two deaths . The microbe or chemical that caused the outbreak was identified for 22 (56.4%) of the 39 outbreaks; 20 of the 22 identified outbreaks were associated with pathogens, and two were associated with chemical poisoning . Of the 17 outbreaks involving acute gastroenteritis of unknown etiology, one was a suspected chemical poisoning, and the remaining 16 were suspected as having an infectious cause . Twenty-eight (71.8%) of 39 outbreaks were linked to groundwater sources; 18 (64.3%) of these 28 groundwater outbreaks were associated with private or noncommunity wells that were not regulated by EPA . Fifty-nine outbreaks from 23 states were attributed to recreational water exposure and affected an estimated 2,093 persons . Thirty-six (61.0%) of the 59 were outbreaks involving gastroenteritis . The etiologic agent was identified in 30 (83.3%) of 36 outbreaks involving gastroenteritis . Twenty-two (61.1%) of 36 gastroenteritis-related outbreaks were associated with pools or interactive fountains . Four (6.8%) of the 59 recreational water outbreaks were attributed to single cases of primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) caused by Naegleria fowleri . All four cases were fatal . Fifteen (25.4%) of the 59 outbreaks were associated with dermatitis; 12 (80.0%) of 15 were associated with hot tubs or pools . In addition, recreational water outbreaks of leptospirosis, Pontiac fever, and chemical keratitis, as well as two outbreaks of leptospirosis and Pontiac fever associated with occupational exposure were also reported to CDC . INTERPRETATION: The proportion of drinking water outbreaks associated with surface water increased from 11.8% during 1997-1998 to 17.9% in 1999-2000 . The proportion of outbreaks (28) associated with groundwater sources increased 87% from the previous reporting period (15 outbreaks), and these outbreaks were primarily associated (60.7%) with consumption of untreated groundwater . Recreational water outbreaks involving gastroenteritis doubled (36 outbreaks) from the number of outbreaks reported in the previous reporting period (18 outbreaks) . These outbreaks were most frequently associated with Cryptosporidium parvum (68.2%) in treated water venues (e.g., swimming pools or interactive fountains) and by Escherichia coli O157:H7 (21.4%) in freshwater venues . The increase in the number of outbreaks probably reflects improved surveillance and reporting at the local and state level as well as a true increase in the number of WBDOs . PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: CDC and others have used surveillance data to identify the types of water systems, their deficiencies, and the etiologic agents associated with outbreaks and evaluated current technologies for providing safe drinking water and safe recreational water . Surveillance data are used also to establish research priorities, which can lead to improved water-quality regulations . Only the groundwater systems under the influence of surface water are required to disinfect their water supplies, but EPA is developing a groundwater rule that specifies when corrective action (including disinfection) is required . CDC and EPA are conducting epidemiologic studies to assess the level of waterborne illness attributable to municipal drinking water in nonoutbreak conditions . Rules under development by EPA--the Ground Water Rule (GWR), the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), and Stage 2 Disinfection Byproduct Rules (DBPR)--are expected to further protect the public from contaminants and disinfection byproducts in drinking water . Efforts by EPA under the Beaches Environmental Assessment, Closure, and Health (BEACH) program are aimed at reducing the risks for infection attributed to ambient recreational water by strengthening beach standards and testing; providing faster laboratory test methods; predicting pollution; investing in health and methods research; and improving public access to information regarding both the quality of the water at beaches and information concerning health risks associated with swimming in polluted water . EPA's Beach Watch (available at provides online information regarding water quality at U.S . beaches, local protection programs, and other beach-related programs . CDC partnered with a consortium of local and national pool associations to develop a series of health communication materials for the general public who attend treated recreational water venues and to staff who work at those venues . CDC has also developed a recreational water outbreak investigation toolkit that can be used by public health professionals . All of the CDC materials are accessible at the CDC Healthy Swimming website .

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2002 Sep, 53(1), 134 - 40
Cellular stress induced in cultured human cells by exposure to sludge extracts from water treatment plants; Fulladosa E et al.; Sludge extracts from three water treatment plants, corresponding either to the readily water-soluble fraction or to the heavy metal content found in the solid fraction were tested separately or in combination on human cultured cells for their ability to affect the growth rate and/or to trigger a synthesis of the stress-related hsp72 and metallothionein proteins . When given separately, the soluble extract or the metal mixture corresponding to the solid fraction of sludge failed to exert significant effects on cell growth rate and expression level of the stress proteins . However, when given in combination, they were found to exert a strong synergistic effect, as they impaired cell growth and induced a significant overexpression of both hsp72 and metallothionein . This result points out the complex molecular interactions in actual environmental samples when acting on biological structures . It underscores the need for biological tests to complement chemical analyses in environment monitoring.

Drug Dev Ind Pharm, 2002 Nov, 28(10), 1285 - 94
Effect of fatty acid diesters on permeation of anti-inflammatory drugs through rat skin; Takahashi K et al.; Four fatty acid diesters (diethyl succinate, diethyl adipate, diethyl sebacate, and diisopropyl adipate) were used to study their enhancement effect on the permeation of four non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs: ketoprofen, indomethacin, diclofenac sodium, and ibuprofen) through rat abdominal skin . With the diester pretreatment, drug permeation increased and the lag times decreased . No relationship was observed between the solubilities of the drugs in the diesters and the diester enhancement effects . The enhancement effect decreased with an increase of the drug lipophilicity, but increased with an increase of the lipophilic index of the diester up to about 3.5, after which the enhancement effect decreased or remained constant . Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) was employed to investigate the biophysical changes in the stratum corneum lipids caused by the diesters . The FTIR results showed that treatment of the skin with diesters did not produce a blue shift in the asymmetric and symmetric C-H stretching peak positions . However, all of the above diesters showed a decrease in peak heights and areas for both asymmetric and symmetric C-H stretching absorbances in comparison with water treatment . These results suggested that the diesters were more effective for enhancing the penetration of hydrophilic drugs than lipophilic drugs, and the enhancing effect of lipophilic diesters was more effective than that of hydrophilic diesters . The enhancement effects of diesters may be due to their causing lipid extraction in the skin.

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2002 Dec, 60(4), 485 - 8 Epub 2002 Oct 12.
Enzymatic hydrolysis and physical characterization of commercial celluloses and cellulose-based ion-exchange powdered mixed resins; Clarkin SD et al.; Commercial celluloses (BH20, Epicote, FC+) and their cellulose-containing powdered mixed resins (PMR) were evaluated using enzymatic and physical methods . Samples were hydrolyzed with purified Trichoderma viride cellulase extract and measured for released reducing sugar using the dinitrosalicylic acid method . Physical characterization was performed with gross specific surface areas (GSSA) and relative crystalline indices (RCI) . In addition, FC+ was exposed to physical and chemical processing commonly encountered in spent PMR processing to determine potential effects on reducing sugar release in high intensity containers . Reducing sugar released from the celluloses by T . viride cellulase ranged from 135.37 to 244.48 mg day(-1); the celluloses were highly crystalline, ranging from 82.47 to 84.57%; and the GSSA medians for the celluloses ranged from 1,298.60 cm(2) g(-1) to 2,493.20 cm(2) g(-1) . Most processing treatments on the FC+ reduced the amount of reducing sugar released and increased RCI . Cellulose hydrolysis rates did not show a strong correlation with the physical characterization . These results suggest that (1) celluloses and PMR can serve as abundant sources of bioavailable carbon in water treatment systems, and (2) the use of correlative physical characteristics to evaluate a cellulose-based commercial product may not accurately predict microbial activity; a complementary microbial test such as cellulose hydrolysis with cellulase may prove useful.

Water Res, 2003 Jan, 37(1), 150 - 4
DOC removal by multi-stage ozonation-biological treatment; Nishijima W et al.; Multi-stage ozonation-biological treatment process for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal was evaluated to apply for drinking water treatment . Waters with different types of DOC were used, i.e . a reservoir water for drinking water supply, a secondary effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant and a solution of humic substances extracted from leaf mold . The multi-stage ozonation-biological treatment process was compared with conventional single-stage ozonation-biological treatment process . Amount of DOC removed in biological treatment was defined as amount of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) in influent of biological treatment . DOC removal in the multi-stage ozonation-biological treatment was higher than that in the conventional single-stage ozonation-biological treatment with the same total ozonation time for the reservoir water and humic substances solution . Moreover, three- or four-stage ozonation for 5 min followed by biological treatment (total ozonation time 15 or 20 min) showed higher removal of DOC than the single-stage ozonation (60 min) and biological treatment . The higher DOC removal in the multi-stage treatment was due to the production of BDOC by ozonation . The long-term ozonation was not effective to produce BDOC because most of ozone was utilized to oxidize BDOC produced in the early stage of ozonation . In the multi-stage treatment, ozonation was effective to decompose refractory DOC and to produce BDOC because BDOC was removed by biological treatment . However, multi-stage ozonation-biological treatment was not effective for the secondary effluent . The reason seems to be high concentration of ozone scavengers in that water and low reactivity of DOC for ozone.

Water Res, 2003 Jan, 37(1), 47 - 54
Solar disinfection (SODIS): simulation of solar radiation for global assessment and application for point-of-use water treatment in Haiti; Oates PM et al.; Haiti and other developing countries do not have sufficient meteorological data to evaluate if they meet the solar disinfection (SODIS) threshold of 3-5 h of solar radiation above 500 W/m2, which is required for adequate microbial inactivation in drinking water . We have developed a mathematical model based on satellite-derived daily total energies to simulate monthly mean, minimum, and maximum 5-h averaged peak solar radiation intensities . This model can be used to assess if SODIS technology would be applicable anywhere in the world . Field measurements were made in Haiti during January 2001 to evaluate the model and test SODIS efficacy as a point-of-use treatment option . Using the total energy from a measured solar radiation intensity profile, the model recreated the intensity profile with 99% agreement . NASA satellite data were then used to simulate the mean, minimum, and maximum 5-h averaged peak intensities for Haiti in January, which were within 98.5%, 62.5%, and 86.0% agreement with the measured values, respectively . Most of the discrepancy was attributed to the heterogeneous nature of Haiti's terrain and the spatial resolution of the NASA data . Additional model simulations suggest that SODIS should be effective year-round in Haiti . Actual SODIS efficacy in January was tested by the inactivation of total coliform, E . coli, and H2S-producing bacteria . Exposure period proved critical . One-day exposure achieved complete bacterial inactivation 52% of the time, while a 2-day exposure period achieved complete microbial inactivation 100% of the time . A practical way of providing people with cold water every morning that has undergone a 2-day exposure would be to rotate three groups of bottles every morning, so two groups are out in the sun and one is being used for consumption.

Sci Total Environ, 2002 Oct 21, 298(1-3), 17 - 24
Metal sorption to natural filter substrates for storm water treatment--column studies; Farm C; Storm water generated from road runoff contains pollutants such as metals that are either dissolved in storm water or bound to particulates . Using detention ponds for the treatment of storm water from road runoff, where particles can settle, can reduce the level of particulate-bound metals in the water, while small particles and dissolved matter pass through the detention pond . Some of these metals can be removed by filtrating water through specially constructed filter systems . This investigation is a laboratory study where different filter substrates were tested in order to evaluate their efficiency in reducing heavy metals from water . Metal solutions were filtered through columns filled with various substrates consisting of combinations of calcium silicate rock (opoka), zeolite and peat . The metal-removal efficiency was correlated to hydraulic load, and for the metal species the reduction efficiency decreased with increased hydraulic load . Mixtures of opoka and zeolite were found to be superior to the other filter-substrate combinations tested with regard to both hydraulic aspects and removal efficiency . Peat mixed with the calcium silicate rock was not successful due to clogging which stopped the experiment . A manufactured product made from the calcium silicate rock (burned opoka) was found to be less useful because of its calcium oxide (CaO) content . Among the tested filter substrates, mixtures of opoka and zeolite seemed to be the most useful compositions with respect to reduction-efficiency and clogging aspects . The removal capacity of metals varied from 0.6 to 1.8 kg m(-3) depending on the metal and the filter substrate.

Water Res, 2002 Dec, 36(20), 5141 - 55
Removal of arsenic from contaminated water sources by sorption onto iron-oxide-coated polymeric materials; Katsoyiannis IA et al.; The modification of polymeric materials (polystyrene and polyHIPE) by coating their surface with appropriate adsorbing agents (i.e . iron hydroxides) was investigated in the present work, in order to apply the modified media in the removal of inorganic arsenic anions from contaminated water sources . The method, termed adsorptive filtration, has been classified as an emerging technology in water treatment processes as it presents several advantages towards conventional technologies: the production of high amounts of toxic sludge can be avoided and it is considered as economically more efficient; whereas it has not yet been applied in full-scale treatment plants for low-level arsenic removal . The present experiments showed that both modified media were capable in removing arsenic from the aqueous stream, leading to residual concentration of this toxic metalloid element below 10 microg/L, which is the new maximum concentration limit set recently by the European Commission and imposed by the USEPA . Though, among the examined materials, polyHIPE was found to be more effective in the removal of arsenic, as far as it concerns the maximum sorptive capacity before the filtration bed reaches the respective breakthrough point.

Water Res, 2002 Dec, 36(20), 5113 - 9
Atrazine degradation by anodic Fenton treatment; Saltmiras DA et al.; Anodic Fenton treatment (AFT), an hydroxyl radical oxidation process recently developed for the degradation of aqueous pesticide waste, was applied to the degradation of atrazine, seven degradation products, and a formulated atrazine product . Using AFT, degradation of the parent compound occurred in 3 min . The concentration profiles of seven degradation products formed during treatment were measured, and degradation pathways are proposed for the treatment . The primary termination product after 10 min was dechlorinated ammeline . Three different 14C labeled atrazine compounds (ethyl, isopropyl and U-triazine ring labeled atrazine) were also treated in an air-tight AFT apparatus and the mass balance was calculated . The triazine ring was not cleaved during this treatment process . Formulated atrazine was 70% degraded in 3 min . AFT holds promise as an effective pesticide-laden water treatment technology.

Water Res, 2002 Nov, 36(19), 4902 - 6
Electrochemical removal of bromide and reduction of THM formation potential in drinking water; Kimbrough DE et al.; Trihalomethanes (THMs), a by-product of the chlorination of natural waters containing dissolved organic carbon and bromide, are the focus of considerable public health concern and regulation due to their potential as a carcinogen by ingestion . This paper presents a promising new water treatment process that lowers the concentration of bromide in drinking water and thus, lowers the THM formation potential . Bromide is oxidized by electrolysis to bromine and then the bromine apparently volatilized . The electrolyzed water, when chlorinated, produces measurably lower amounts of THMs and proportionately fewer brominated THMs, which are of greater public health concern than the chlorinated THMs . Removing bromide should also reduce the formation of other disinfection by-products such as bromate and haloacetic acids.

Water Res, 2002 Nov, 36(19), 4861 - 9
Removal efficiency and homologue patterns of dioxins in drinking water treatment; Kim HK et al.; Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls (Co-PCBs) analyses in raw and treated water throughout Japan were implemented to identify the concentration and homologue patterns of dioxins before and after the water treatment process . In 40 surface water and 5 ground water treatment plants, the removal efficiency of dioxins and the influence of extent chlorination on dioxins increase in drinking water were also studied . Raw water and treated water were sampled twice, summer and winter . The mean concentration in raw water and treated water of dioxins was 56.45 pg/L (0.15 pg WHO-TEQ/L) and 4.24 pg/L (0.019 pg WHO-TEQ/L), respectively . Location of water treatment plants not only significantly influenced the concentration level of dioxins but also resulted in different homologue patterns of dioxins . Levels of dioxins in ground water were much less than that of surface water in both raw and treated water . This study shows most dioxin congeners are well removed (87% removal efficiency) by water treatment . However, in some water treatment plants, the level of TeCDFs (pg WHO-TEQ/L) increased as a result of chlorination.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(9), 339 - 46
Application of locally available materials for the treatment of organic polluted water; Salim MR et al.; Several types of water treatment technologies including adsorption are now being used to treat polluted water . In this paper the removal of phenol by adsorption will be discussed . Activated carbons are successfully applied for purification of potable water and the removal of organic pollutants in wastwater . This paper is concerned with a low cost approach to treating waste water that is significant especially for those countries where oil palm is an available agricultural product like Malaysia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Thailand, Papua New Guinea . In the coastal region coconut is an available agricultural product and activated carbon prepared using coconut shell is also an economical method of water treatment . The materials used in this study were Commercial Activated Carbon (CAC), prepared from coconut shell and Modified Oil Palm Shell (MOPAS) of 1 to 2 mm diameters . The surface area of CAC and MOPAS was 38.5 m2/g and 38.2 m2/g respectively and the iodine number was determined as 674 and 454 for CAC and MOPAS, respectively . From the study the result shows above 70% removal efficiency for 5 mg/L and 40% removal efficiency for 20 mg/L of phenol solution . The performance efficiency will be discussed based on batch test, following Freundlich adsorption isotherm.The results indicate that CAC exhibits a higher adsorptive capacity (Kf of 0.079) as compared to MOPAS (Kf of 0.048) . Hence a better removal efficiency for CAC at lower concentration of phenol . Results from column tests show a better adsorptive capacity for CAC (2.73) as compared to MOPAS (2.48).

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(9), 103 - 8
Modelling and control of potable water chlorination; Pastre A et al.; The Umgeni Water Wiggins water treatment plant feeds the southern areas of Durban in South Africa and has a maximum treatment capacity of about 350 Ml/d . Two interconnected reservoirs at this facility hold treated water before it enters the distribution network . Because of the variable demand, the reservoir levels and residence times undergo considerable variation . This has a strong influence on the free chlorine concentration in the water leaving the reservoir, which should be 0.8 to 1.2 mg/l, to ensure an adequate disinfection potential within the network . This paper describes a model which accounts for the observed variations of chlorine concentration, and will form the basis of a predictive controller for the chlorine concentration in the outlet.

Am J Hosp Palliat Care, 2002 Nov-Dec, 19(6), 381 - 6
Use of aromatherapy with hospice patients to decrease pain, anxiety, and depression and to promote an increased sense of well-being; Louis M et al.; This study measured the responses of 17 cancer hospice patients to humidified essential lavender oil aromatherapy . Vital signs as well as levels of pain, anxiety, depression, and sense of well-being were measured (using 11-point verbal analogs) . Each subject was measured on three different days before and after a 60-minute session consisting of (1) no treatment (control); (2) water humidification (control); or (3) 3-percent lavender aromatherapy . Results reflected a positive, yet small, change in blood pressure and pulse, pain, anxiety, depression, and sense of well-being after both the humidified water treatment and the lavender treatment . Following the control session (no treatment), there was also slight improvement in vital signs, depression, and sense of well-being, but not in pain or anxiety levels.

Stat Med, 2002 Dec 15, 21(23), 3627 - 38
Statistical estimation of parameters in a disease transmission model: analysis of a Cryptosporidium outbreak; Brookhart MA et al.; Population dynamic models, commonly used tools in the study of epidemics and other complex population processes, are implicit non-linear mathematical equations . Inference based on such models can be difficult due to the problems associated with high dimensional parameters that may be non-identified and complex likelihood functions that are difficult to maximize . To address a problem of non-identifiability due to collinearity of parameter estimates in a mathematical model of the 1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidium parvum outbreak, we examined the utility of a constrained profile likelihood approach . This method was used to study two parameters of interest from the mathematical model: (i) . the rate of secondary transmission; (ii) . the proportional increase in primary transmission due to water treatment failure . The estimated values of these parameters were shown to depend strongly on poorly understood aspects of Cryptosporidium epidemiology such as asymptomatic proportion and the population immune status . Our analysis demonstrated that the combination of a disease transmission model and a constrained profile likelihood procedure provides an effective approach for inference and estimation of important parameters regulating infectious disease outbreaks .

Commun Dis Public Health, 2002 Sep, 5(3), 230 - 9
Managing a large outbreak of cryptosporidiosis: how to investigate and when to decide to lift a 'boil water' notice; Harrison SL et al.; The largest outbreak of cryptosporidiosis reported in the United Kingdom, involving 575 confirmed cases (of which 474 met an agreed case definition), occurred in the county of Devon during August and September of 1995 . The descriptive epidemiology supports the hypothesis that the outbreak was associated with the consumption of cold tap water in the area served by a particular water treatment works . Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in treated water samples at the time of the outbreak . Although the epidemiological analysis provided strong circumstantial evidence of a waterborne outbreak, the data were not recorded in a manner that made them admissible in criminal proceedings taken by the Drinking Water Inspectorate against the water company involved . The need to carry out an analytical study in conjunction with the identification and characterisation of the pathogen in the drinking water and the practicalities of agreeing criteria for lifting a 'boil water' notice are discussed.

Biotechnol Bioeng, 2003 Jan 5, 81(1), 13 - 20
Expression of a plant-derived peptide harboring water-cleaning and antimicrobial activities; Suarez M et al.; Drinking water is currently a scarce world resource, the preparation of which requires complex treatments that include clarification of suspended particles and disinfection . Seed extracts of Moringa oleifera Lam., a tropical tree, have been proposed as an environment-friendly alternative, due to their traditional use for the clarification of drinking water . However, the precise nature of the active components of the extract and whether they may be produced in recombinant form are unknown . Here we show that recombinant or synthetic forms of a cationic seed polypeptide mediate efficient sedimentation of suspended mineral particles and bacteria . Unexpectedly, the polypeptide was also found to possesses a bactericidal activity capable of disinfecting heavily contaminated water . Furthermore, the polypeptide has been shown to efficiently kill several pathogenic bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant isolates of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Legionella species . Thus, this polypeptide displays the unprecedented feature of combining water purification and disinfectant properties . Identification of an active principle derived from the seed extracts points to a range of potential for drinking water treatment or skin and mucosal disinfection in clinical settings .

Chemosphere, 2002 Nov, 49(6), 539 - 44
Identification and significance of phenazone drugs and their metabolites in ground- and drinking water; Reddersen K et al.; Residues of three phenazone-type pharmaceuticals have been identified in routine analyses of groundwater samples from selected areas in the north-western districts of Berlin, Germany . Phenazone, propiphenazone, and dimethylaminophenazone have been detected in some wells at concentrations up to the low microg/l-level . Additionally, three phenazone-type metabolites namely 1-acetyl-1-methyl-2-dimethyl-oxamoyl-2-phenylhydrazide (AMDOPH), 1-acetyl-1-methyl-2-phenylhydrazide, and dimethyloxalamide acid-(N'-methyl-N-phenyl)-hydrazide have also been identified in these groundwater samples . The residues are suspected to originate from former production spills of a pharmaceutical plant located in a city north of Berlin . It was observed that with the exception of AMDOPH all other residues were efficiently removed during conventional drinking water treatment . The drug metabolite AMDOPH deriving from dimethylaminophenazone residues was found at concentrations of 0.9 microg/l in finished drinking water . However, a following study on the toxicological relevance of the AMDOPH residues has shown that there is no toxicological harm for humans at the low concentrations of AMDOPH observed in Berlin drinking water.

OMICS, 2002, 6(3), 235 - 46
Metabolomics of plant saponins: bioprospecting triterpene glycoside diversity with respect to mammalian cell targets; Joshi L et al.; One of the goals of cancer chemotherapy and prevention is the discovery of compounds that are relatively selective to tumor cells and, therefore, have reduced effects on normal cell growth . In previously published studies, it was shown that certain triterpene saponins (called avicins) from a desert tree, Acacia victoriae, are selectively toxic to tumor cells at very low doses (IC(50): 0.2 microg/mL for Jurkat cells) . To extend this research to human clinical studies, we needed to find a reliable supply of avicins and have developed a transformed "hairy root" culture as a means of biomass production . Protocols were optimized for A . victoriae micropropagation; after a boiling water treatment, A . victoriae seeds were maintained under in vitro conditions on defined media . Embryo-axis explants from shoot tips were removed and infected with Agrobacterium rhizogenes Conn (R 1000) for hairy root induction . Plasmid integration was confirmed by PCR analysis with a primer set for a segment of the rol B gene . Culture conditions have been optimized for root biomass production, and various inducers have been investigated for enhancement of avicin production . Hairy root cultures were compared with intact pod tissue from field-grown sources for avicin content following partial purification of triterpene glycosides and HPLC separation of the secondary metabolites . From bioassays of the collected HPLC fractions, we have identified putative triterpene "metabolic clusters" with enhanced activity against tumor cells . This now provides a system for both production of clinical trial lots of active samples, but also a means to correlate structure of individual triterpene glycosides with specific cellular target activity in mammalian cells.

Health Policy Plan, 2002 Dec, 17(4), 393 - 401
Increasing awareness of arsenic in Bangladesh: lessons from a public education programme; Hanchett S et al.; Experts are making a major effort to find technical solutions to the serious public health problems posed by arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh, but public education strategies receive less systematic attention . This article presents the findings of a study evaluating the impact of a 1999 campaign by the 18 District Towns Project to educate the public about the arsenic problem in six Bangladesh towns, where half of the population was estimated to be using arsenic-contaminated domestic water: (1) . Water users were advised not to consume arsenic-affected tube-well water; (2) . A simple, temporary water treatment method was recommended for those using such water, if they had no safe alternative source; (3) . Caretakers of tube-wells having arsenic-free water were advised to share their water sources with others . This evaluation study, utilizing a combination of quantitative and qualitative social research methods, found those influenced by the programme to have higher awareness levels and significantly lower levels of risk behaviour than others . Yet more than half of the at-risk, programme-influenced survey respondents were found still to be drinking (57%) or cooking with (54%) arsenic-affected water . Despite the fact that the campaign did not have a satisfactory public health impact, the experience can inform future efforts to educate the Bangladeshi public about arsenic . One finding is widespread confusion about trusted tube-well water being newly labelled as 'unsafe' . Some think the problem is in the hand pumps themselves . Awareness of life threatening danger from arsenic contamination was found to be low . Learning points from this experience are: the value of explaining together with water testing; giving people opportunities to ask questions; repeating messages; continuing to educate children about the serious risks of consuming surface water; conducting community-wide education programmes for people of all ages; and evaluating the impact of specific public education strategies . Respecting such principles in public information campaigns will greatly help the public to benefit from future technical developments.

Syst Appl Microbiol, 2002 Oct, 25(3), 434 - 9
16S rRNA sequence analysis of bacteria present in foaming activated sludge; Wagner AM et al.; The formation of a stable viscous foam on activated sludge aeration basin surfaces is a world wide problem . Foam is usually comprised of filamentous bacteria occurring predominantly in the mixed liquor . The lack of availability of pure cultures of most filaments and the limited amount of characterisation data available for them, means that our current understanding of their taxonomic position is very poor and their relationship to other bacteria are not known . 16S rDNA sequencing was used in an attempt to identify the bacteria in a foaming sample from the Centurion Waste Water Treatment Plant in Gauteng South Africa.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(8), 105 - 10
Membrane dosing units for chemicals in water and wastewater treatment plants; Kouzmanova K et al.; It is well known that in the practice of the drinking water as well as of the wastewater treatment especially for the processes of pH-regulation, flocculation, precipitation or disinfection, the dosing of reagents is necessary . The costs of the automatic dosing stations are comparatively high . For the smaller water treatment plants these stations are uneconomical and charged with maintenance problems very often . In many cases the frequently observed highly fluctuating reagents needs and the recess between can cause disruption of the normal exploitation work . These disadvantages can easily be overcome by a device based on permeable or semi-permeable membranes . The use of semi-permeable membranes is favourable especially in the cases of fluctuating water quantities or standstills . It can be effective because of the possibility for their self-regulation during the dosing . When there is no inflow available some kind of concentration equilibrium is established between the internal and external membrane layers . This system is easy to install and it can be easily adapted to the local conditions . The device can be a canister filled with the desired reagent and covered with a lid of a definite semi-permeable membrane . After determining the permeability of the membranes made of different materials only the appropriate membrane area is important to be determined . Developed methods for defining the specific membrane permeability are discussed in the paper . Suggestions for the application of such devices in practice are given as well.

Water Res, 2002 Nov, 36(18), 4543 - 51
Biomass development in slow sand filters; Campos LC et al.; Microbial biomass development in the sand and schmutzdecke layer was determined in two full-scale slow sand filters, operated with and without a light excluding cover . A standard chloroform fumigation-extraction technique was adapted to routinely measure microbial biomass concentrations in the sand beds . Sand was sampled to a depth of 10 cm and schmutzdecke was also collected at the same random positions on the uncovered filter . Interstitial microbial biomass in the uncovered sand bed increased with time and decreased with sampling depth . There was a small accumulation of sand biomass with time in the covered filter, but no relationship was apparent between biomass concentration and depth in this filter . Schmutzdecke did not develop on the covered filter and was spatially highly variable in the uncovered condition compared to the consistent patterns observed in interstitial biomass production . It is speculated that microbial biomass in the sand of uncovered filters is largely related to carbon inputs from photosynthetic activity in the schmutzdecke and involves mechanisms that spatially distribute carbon substrate from the schmutzdecke to the sand . However, total organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon removals were similar in both filters suggesting that relatively small biomass populations in covered filters are sufficient to remove residual labile carbon during advanced water treatment and little further advantage to water purification and organic carbon removal is gained by the increased production of biomass in uncovered slow sand filter beds.

Environ Health Perspect, 2002 Nov, 110(11), 1127 - 32
Effect of ozonation on the removal of cyanobacterial toxins during drinking water treatment; Hoeger SJ et al.; Water treatment plants faced with toxic cyanobacteria have to be able to remove cyanotoxins from raw water . In this study we investigated the efficacy of ozonation coupled with various filtration steps under different cyanobacterial bloom conditions . Cyanobacteria were ozonated in a laboratory-scale batch reactor modeled on a system used by a modern waterworks, with subsequent activated carbon and sand filtration steps . The presence of cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) was determined using the protein phosphatase inhibition assay . We found that ozone concentrations of at least 1.5 mg/L were required to provide enough oxidation potential to destroy the toxin present in 5 X 10(5 )Microcystis aeruginosa cells/mL {total organic carbon (TOC), 1.56 mg/L} . High raw water TOC was shown to reduce the efficiency of free toxin oxidation and destruction . In addition, ozonation of raw waters containing high cyanobacteria cell densities will result in cell lysis and liberation of intracellular toxins . Thus, we emphasize that only regular and simultaneous monitoring of TOC/dissolved organic carbon and cyanobacterial cell densities, in conjunction with online residual O(3) concentration determination and efficient filtration steps, can ensure the provision of safe drinking water from surface waters contaminated with toxic cyanobacterial blooms.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 2002 Nov, 68(11), 5318 - 25
Occurrence of mycobacteria in water treatment lines and in water distribution systems; Le Dantec C et al.; The frequency of recovery of atypical mycobacteria was estimated in two treatment plants providing drinking water to Paris, France, at some intermediate stages of treatment . The two plants use two different filtration processes, rapid and slow sand filtration . Our results suggest that slow sand filtration is more efficient for removing mycobacteria than rapid sand filtration . In addition, our results show that mycobacteria can colonize and grow on granular activated carbon and are able to enter distribution systems . We also investigated the frequency of recovery of mycobacteria in the water distribution system of Paris (outside buildings) . The mycobacterial species isolated from the Paris drinking water distribution system are different from those isolated from the water leaving the treatment plants . Saprophytic mycobacteria (present in 41.3% of positive samples), potentially pathogenic mycobacteria (16.3%), and unidentifiable mycobacteria (54.8%) were isolated from 12 sites within the Paris water distribution system . Mycobacterium gordonae was preferentially recovered from treated surface water, whereas Mycobacterium nonchromogenicum was preferentially recovered from groundwater . No significant correlations were found among the presence of mycobacteria, the origin of water, and water temperature.

Water Res, 2002 Sep, 36(16), 4064 - 78
Laboratory study of electro-coagulation-flotation for water treatment; Jiang JQ et al.; An electro-coagulation-flotation process has been developed for water treatment . This involved an electrolytic reactor with aluminium electrodes and a separation/flotation tank . The water to be treated passed through the reactor and was subjected to coagulation/flotation, by Al(III) ions dissolved from the electrodes, the resulting flocs floating after being captured by hydrogen gas bubbles generated at cathode surfaces . Apparent current efficiencies for Al dissolution as aqueous Al(III) species at pH 6.5 and 7.8 were greater than unity . This was due to additional reactions occurring in parallel with Al dissolution: oxygen reduction at anodes and cathodes, and hydrogen evolution at cathodes, resulting in net (i.e . oxidation + reduction) currents at both anodes and cathodes . The specific electrical energy consumption of the reactor for drinking water treatment was as low as 20 kWh (kg Al)(-1) for current densities of 10-20A m(-2) . The water treatment performance of the electrocoagulation process was found to be superior to that of conventional coagulation with aluminium sulphate for treating a model-coloured water, with 20% more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) being removed for the same Al(III) dose . However, for a lowland surface water sample, the two processes achieved a similar performance for DOC and UV-absorbance removal . In addition, an up-flow electrocoagulator configuration performed better than a horizontal flow configuration, with both bipolar and monopolar electrodes.

Epidemiol Infect, 2002 Oct, 129(2), 315 - 23
Associations between water-treatment methods and diarrhoea in HIV-positive individuals; Eisenberg JN et al.; This manuscript extends our previously published work (based on data from one clinic) on the association between three drinking water-treatment modalities (boiling, filtering, and bottling) and diarrhoeal disease in HIV-positive persons by incorporating data from two additional clinics collected in the following year . We conducted a cross-sectional survey of drinking water patterns, medication usage, and episodes of diarrhoea among HIV-positive persons attending clinics associated with the San Francisco Community Consortium . We present combined results from our previously published work in one clinic (n = 226) with data from these two additional clinics (n = 458) . In this combined analysis we employed logistic regression and marginal structural modelling of the data . The relative risk of diarrhoea for 'always' vs . 'never' drinking boiled water was 0.68 (95% CI 0.45-1.04) and for 'always' vs . 'never' drinking bottled water was 1.22 (95 % CI 0.82-1.82) . Drinking filtered water was unrelated to diarrhoea (1.03 (95% CI 0.78, 1.35) for 'always' vs . 'never' drinking filtered water} . Adjustment for confounding did not have any notable effect on the point estimates (0.61, 1.35 and 0.98 for boiled, bottled, and filtered water respectively, as defined above) . The risk of diarrhoea was lower among those consuming boiled water but this finding was not statistically significant . Because of these findings, the importance of diarrhoea in immunocompromised individuals, and the limitations of cross-sectional data further prospective investigations of water consumption and diarrhoea among HIV-positive individuals are needed.

Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom, 2002, 16(21), 2025 - 33
Effect of water treatment on analyte and matrix ion yields in matrix-assisted time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry: the case of insulin in and on hydroxycinnamic acid; Szymczak W et al.; A systematic study was performed to identify the origin of surprisingly high analyte-to-matrix yield ratios recently observed in time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) analysis of oligo- and polypeptides mixed in matrices of alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (4HCCA) . Several sets of samples of porcine insulin in 4HCCA (1:3100 molar) were prepared from liquid solutions by a nebuliser technique, with more than one order of magnitude variation in sprayed material (substrate silicon) . Following different periods of storage in air and/or vacuum as well as exposure to high-purity water, TOF-SIMS analysis was performed under oblique impact of 22 keV SF5+ . Treatment with water involved either deposition of a droplet covering the whole sample for times between 1 and 20 min or spraying with water in droplet equivalent quantities . The analyte and matrix molecules were detected as protonated molecules (insulin also in doubly protonated form) . Even the as-prepared samples usually showed insulin-to-4HCCA yield ratios exceeding the molar ratio of the mixed material . Upon ageing in vacuum the matrix ion yields remained constant but the analyte yields decreased, partly due to break-up of intrachain disulfide bonds . Water treatment resulted in a pronounced decrease in the 4HCCA yield, typically by a factor of five, in parallel with an increase of the insulin yield, by up to a factor of four . Evidence is provided that these changes occur concurrently with a partial dissolution of 4HCCA at the sample surface . The enhanced insulin yield was not correlated with the Na+ yield . The typically 20-fold increase in the insulin-to-4HCCA yield ratio, generated by water exposure of the samples, provides the explanation for the high yield ratios observed previously with water-treated samples . Spraying with water or repeated exposure to water droplets caused a pronounced degradation of the insulin parent yields in combination with an increasing appearance of signals due to the B- and A-chains of insulin . To clarify the issue of surface segregation, a few samples were prepared by spraying acetone-diluted solutions of insulin on previously deposited layers of 4HCCA . Whereas the insulin yields from as-prepared samples were rather low, the yields observed after water treatment were comparable with those observed with samples of insulin in 4HCCA . The results suggest that a large amount of insulin is present at the surface of samples prepared from liquid mixtures of insulin in 4HCCA . With both methods of sample preparation, however, high secondary ion yields of insulin were only obtained after exposure of the samples to water . The chemical changes responsible for this beneficial effect still need to be identified .

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2002 Oct, 60(1-2), 114 - 9 Epub 2002 Aug 23.
Flocculent activity of a recombinant protein from Moringa oleifera Lam . seeds; Broin M et al.; Seeds of the tropical tree Moringa oleifera contain small storage proteins able to flocculate particles in suspension in water . The cDNA encoding one of these flocculent proteins, MO(2.1), was cloned and the recombinant protein was expressed in Escherichia coli . The flocculent activity of the purified recombinant MO(2.1)was assayed on clays and bacteria using light and confocal microscopy and GFP-overexpressing bacteria . We show that MO(2.1)is able to aggregate montmorillonite clay particles as well as gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria . We discuss the use of recombinant proteins to study flocculating properties and improve water purification processes.

Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk, 2002, (9), 34 - 8
{Environmental and occupational problems of safe water supply}; Novikov IuV et al.; The paper gives the results of hygienic studies which determine some priorities in formation of unfavourable sanitary conditions of potable water supply in a number of Russian Federation areas . A tendency is shown towards an increase in the content of chemicals with organoleptic and sanitary and toxicological hazards (3-17% rate of increase) in underground and surface water sources, a frequency growth of finding non-standard, by the epidemiological criteria (25%), water test characteristic of areas with intensive industrial and agricultural enterprises . There are risk factors found in the quality of potable water at the stages of water preparation (chlorination) and transportation (corrosion) for human health; data of fundamental studies are given, on hygienic substantiation of ecologically pure methods of water treatment (UV disinfection) . Scientific developments have provided the basis for systematizing a number of considerations for basic documents for a law on water protection quality, by revealing and predicting the processes affecting the quality of potable water, improving adequate laboratory water quality monitoring.

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Oct 1, 36(19), 4175 - 81
17 beta-estradiol degradation by TiO2 photocatalysis as a means of reducing estrogenic activity; Ohko Y et al.; The degradation of 17 beta-estradiol (E2) in water by TiO2 photocatalysis was investigated; concurrently the estrogenic activity of the treated water was evaluated during the photocatalytic reactions by an estrogen screening assay . As a result, 10(-6) M of E2 was totally mineralized to CO2 in 1.0 g L-1 TiO2 suspension under UV irradiation for 3 h . 10 epsilon-17 beta-Dihydroxy-1,4-estradien-3-one and testosterone-like species were elucidated as intermediate products by GC/MS analysis . The mechanisms of E2 degradation by TiO2 photocatalysis were discussed not only experimentally but also theoretically by calculating the frontier electron densities of the E2 molecule . On the basis of the results obtained, it was concluded that the phenol moiety of the E2 molecule, one of the essential functional groups to interact with the estrogen receptor, should be the starting point of the photocatalytic oxidation of E2 . This means that the estrogenic activity should be almost lost concurrently with the initiation of the photocatalytic degradation . Actually, the estrogenic activities of the intermediate products were negligible . TiO2 photocatalysis could be applied to water treatment to effectively remove natural and synthetic estrogens without producing biologically active intermediary products.

EDTNA ERCA J, 2002 Jul-Sep, 28(3), 116 - 20
Chemical additives in new RO systems; Gietman H; Recent analysis of water and dialysate samples shows that due to new RO systems chemical substances can migrate into the osmotic water . A large number of tests have shown that there are no additives in drinking and softened water, but that the problem arises after the RO system . For the tests, samples were taken in the drinking water, after the softener and after the RO system.When the problem was located there were also samples taken from a similar water treatment system, and further samples were taken from two identical RO systems from another supplier . Instead of an RO system that removes all kind of substances, we're now confronted with systems that add volatile aromatic carbon hydrogens . Further tests have shown that dialysate contains the same level of these carbon hydrogens . It seems that even after having primed the artificial kidney in the blood compartment carbon hydrogens are present . The effects of these substances can be alarming because levels have been found equal to limits that are being proposed for drinking water under new European legislation . Is this the moment to look at our RO water quality level, and state new limits for new additives, should we work out new prescriptions for water quality or should we let the rules remain as they are?

Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2002 Jul, 23(4), 1 - 7
{Future scale and market capacity of urban water environmental infrastructure in China: a system dynamic model}; Chu J et al.; With the application of system dynamics, a dynamic, nonlinear model (SDMUWEIC) was developed in this paper in order to reflect the relationships of population, economic, resources and environment . Through a systematic procedure of model validation and uncertainty analysis, the model was applied for predicting and analyzing the future market capacity and constituents of urban water infrastructure . It illustrated the volumes and trends of potential capital market in construction, general mechanical equipments and water treatment instruments as well as their relevant influencing factors including water pricing and urbanization rate . Several different scenarios were further under test to reveal the sensitivity of different uncertain components.

J Environ Sci Health B, 2002 Sep, 37(5), 453 - 63
Adsorption of paraquat on the physically activated bleaching earth waste from soybean oil processing plant; Tsai WT et al.; A series of regeneration experiments with physical activation were carried out on bleaching earth waste from the soybean refining process in a rotary reactor . The influence of activation parameters on the spent clay by varying the holding time of 1 to approximately 4 hours and temperature of 700 to approximately 900 degrees C was determined . The variations of pore properties as well as the change of chemical characteristics in the resulting solids were also studied . Results showed that the resulting samples were type IV with hysteresis loops corresponding to type H3 from nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms, indicating slit-shaped mesoporous characteristics . However, the regenerated clays had smaller surface areas (70 to approximately 117 m2/g) than that (245 m2/g) of fresh bleaching earth . Under the physical activation conditions investigated, the holding time of 1 hour and temperature of 700 degrees C were found to be optimal conditions for producing mesoporous clay with physical activation . The adsorption of paraquat on regenerated sample was also evaluated . The isotherm showed that the regenerated sample still had a high affinity for this herbicide . Thus, the regeneration of this agro-industrial waste is one option for utilizing the clay resource, and it may be used for water treatment applications to remove organic contaminants.

Water Res, 2002 Sep, 36(15), 3681 - 90
Changes in content of microbially available phosphorus, assimilable organic carbon and microbial growth potential during drinking water treatment processes; Lehtola MJ et al.; There are regions where microbial growth in drinking water is limited by phosphorus instead of organic carbon . In phosphorus limited waters small changes in phosphorus concentration significantly affect microbial growth . We studied how water treatment processes in waterworks affect the availability of microbial nutrients and microbial growth potential in drinking water . The nutrients studied were assimilable organic carbon (AOCpotential) and microbially available phosphorus (MAP) which both were quantified by bioassays . Chemical coagulation, commonly used in surfacewater works, effectively removed AOCpotential and MAP . In contrast to activated carbon filtration, ozonation increased the concentrations of AOCpotential and MAP, and also microbial growth potential . In most of the drinking waters, microbial growth was limited by phosphorus, and microbial growth potential correlated with the MAP concentration . Microbial growth potential was lowest in drinking waters produced from surface waters with efficient treatment technique and highest in less treated ground waters.

G Ital Nefrol, 2002 Jul-Aug, 19(4), 479 - 82
{Organohalogen contamination of a dialysis-water treatment plant}; Formica M et al.; On March 2001 the regular quality control test of the water used for dialysis in an urban centre using a reverse osmosis system revealed a high level of organo-halogenated contamination . The compounds implicated were: trichloroethylene (trielene) {M.Wt . 131 D}, tetrachloroethylene, trichloromethane (chloroform) {M.Wt . 121 D}, chlorodibromomethane . The dialysis unit was closed . Water samples were analysed in duplicate . The table shows the values (in ppm or microgram/l) obtained for chloroform at the given times: March 8th, altered sample; March 12th, confirmation sample; March 16th, after osmosis membranes change; March 22nd, after carbon filtration replacement; March 26th, after softener resins substitution . The AAMI doesn't recommend any value for organo-halogenated compounds in dialysis water . In the past, the European Pharmacopoeia and the Italian Health Ministry released some reference values for tap water, values which were extended to water used for dialysis . The values are 1 ppm as reference value, 30 ppm as maximum accepted value for the sum of all organo-halogenated compounds, and 10 ppm as the recommended value . In conclusion, the problem was solved by progressive replacement of the components of the water treatment system, even though the real cause remained undetermined . No clinical symptom was recorded and no level of chloroform or trielene was detected in patients' sera despite the low molecular weight and low protein binding of the compounds . A strict control of the water quality and a more comprehensive and updated reference guide are needed for better and safer dialysis delivery.

Environ Microbiol, 2002 Oct, 4(10), 570 - 6
Perchlorate reduction by a novel chemolithoautotrophic, hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium; Zhang H et al.; Water treatment technologies are needed that can remove perchlorate from drinking water without introducing organic chemicals that stimulate bacterial growth in water distribution systems . Hydrogen is an ideal energy source for bacterial degradation of perchlorate as it leaves no organic residue and is sparingly soluble . We describe here the isolation of a perchlorate-respiring, hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium (Dechloromonas sp . strain HZ) that grows with carbon dioxide as sole carbon source . Strain HZ is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped facultative anaerobe that was isolated from a gas-phase anaerobic packed-bed biofilm reactor treating perchlorate-contaminated groundwater . The ability of strain HZ to grow autotrophically with carbon dioxide as the sole carbon source was confirmed by demonstrating that biomass carbon (100.9%) was derived from CO2 . Chemolithotrophic growth with hydrogen was coupled with complete reduction of perchlorate (10 mM) to chloride with a maximum doubling time of 8.9 h . Strain HZ also grew using acetate as the electron donor and chlorate, nitrate, or oxygen (but not sulphate) as an electron acceptor . Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA sequence placed strain HZ in the genus Dechloromonas within the beta subgroup of the Proteobacteria . The study of this and other novel perchlorate-reducing bacteria may lead to new, safe technologies for removing perchlorate and other chemical pollutants from drinking water.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(4-5), 405 - 12
Minimisation of costs by using disintegration at a full-scale anaerobic digestion plant; Winter A; Various half-scale and lab-scale investigations have already shown that the disintegration of excess sludge is a possible pre-treatment to optimise anaerobic digestion . To control these results different methods of disintegration were investigated at a full-scale plant . Two stirred ball mills and a plant for oxidation with ozone were applied . A positive influence of disintegration on the anaerobic biodegradability can be established with application of a stirred ball mill . Biogas production as well as the degree of degradation were increased by about 20% . Laboratory investigations also validate that disintegration increases the polymer demand and leads to a lower solid content after dewatering . A higher pollution level of process water after dewatering even with ammonia and COD corroborates the results of the anaerobic degradation . Capital costs for the stirred ball mill, costs for energy, manpower and maintenance can be covered if the specific costs for disposal are high . If the development of costs in future and the current discussion about sludge disposal are taken into account sewage sludge disintegration can be a suitable technique to minimise costs at waste water treatment plants.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(4-5), 35 - 41
Catalytic ozonation of an organophosphorus pesticide using microporous silicate and its effect on total toxicity reduction; Kim BS et al.; Catalytic ozonation is promising as one of the advanced oxidation processes because of its effective use of ozone and its improved treatability of organic compounds through radical reactions . In this article, we investigated the feasibility of microporous silicates as a potential catalyst for a catalytic ozonation process . Organophosphorus insecticide, dichlorvos (DDVP), was employed as a model chemical for assessing conventional ozonation and catalytic ozonation, because its oxidative intermediate is toxic and is not degraded by direct ozonation . It was found that ozone was well adsorbed and simultaneously decomposed in microporous silicates, resulting in the production of possible radical species . In the presence of microporous silicates, radical reactions by decomposed ozone were evidenced by phosphate ion release that shows a degradation of a toxic intermediate of DDVP . Accordingly, cytotoxicity was successfully decreased . In a continuous treatment process combining a conventional ozonation vessel and a microporous silicate column for an effective use of residual ozone, enhanced degradation of DDVP was demonstrated by a decrease of DOC, an increase of the PO4(3-) concentration and reduction in the cytotoxicity . This new treatment mechanism is likely to be promising as an advanced water treatment process particularly when we think about better toxicity reduction of wastewaters.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(4-5), 257 - 64
Phosphorus removal with membrane filtration for surface water treatment; Dietze A et al.; Surface waters are often burdened with inflows of low quality water, so that drinking-water production, swimming or ground water charging must be restricted . To ensure the long-term use of such surface water it is necessary to treat the influents or the water used for ground water charging . The current treatment process for phosphorus and turbidity removal is a process combination called floc filtration . By using this conventional method it is possible to reduce the dissolved ortho-phosphate and the turbidity (particulate phosphorus) as well as the amounts of algae and pathogenic organisms to very low concentrations . The high degree of reduction is only achieved by a relatively high dosage of chemicals . A comparison will be made between this process, which represents the state-of-the-art, and the combination of precipitation/coagulation with micro-/ultrafiltration in dead-end filtration mode.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(4-5), 117 - 24
Early warning-system for operation-failures in biological stages of WWTPs by on-line image analysis; Heine W et al.; By the observation and evaluation of the microscopic picture of activated sludge samples it is possible to introduce another biological parameter additional to conventional physico-chemical parameters for the control of biological stages of waste water treatment plants . Considering the fact that parameters like floc size and floc size distribution, structure of the flocs (compact/open), shape of the flocs (round/irregular) allow perceptions of the adjusted operation conditions of the biological stages, evidence for changing operation conditions or threatening operation disturbances can be recognised . This recognition takes place at a very early phase, because the morphology of activated sludge flocs reacts very fast to changing conditions . An automatic image analysis of activated sludge floc pictures would enable the introduction of a new sum parameter to enhance operation control of aeration tanks . By a statistical evaluation of the processed sludge images several parameters can be used to describe the alteration of activated sludge flocs characteristics . With these biological parameters it is possible to detect altered operation conditions or threatening or existing operation problems at an early phase . Thus it is possible to plan suitable countermeasures . Furthermore, the microscopic picture is the only parameter, that gives important information about the structure of the activated sludge flocs and the biozenosis . In comparison with the mainly used physico-chemical parameters, that just give information about the inlet and outlet of the wastewater treatment plants, the microscopic picture is the only parameter that gives information about the biology of the wastewater treatment process . By means of this biological parameter an improved control and regulation of the biological stages of wastewater treatment plants can be obtained.

Asian Forum Newsl . 1997 Oct-Dec;:9-11.
Philippines -- country wide water development projects and funds needed . Water crisis in Manila coincide with parliamentarians seminar on water resources and population; Cholera concern; PIP: Kenya's Nyanza Province is experiencing a major cholera outbreak . More than 130 people have died since the first case was reported 3 months ago and 30 food houses and two major markets have been closed by health authorities in the provincial capital, Kisumu . The provincial medical officer has reported that more than 2500 people have thus far been hospitalized and 25,000 have been given drugs . The epidemic has reached a critical stage and local communities have been advised to follow high hygienic standards . Cases are suspected in the neighboring Rift Valley province . Mozambique's Ministry of Health has reported 346 cases of cholera with 14 deaths through September . The cases have mainly been in five areas of Maputo city and no case has been reported outside of the city . As Zambia's rainy season begins, people fear the return of cholera, a growing, recurrent problem during the season for the past 8 years . Health authorities fear the disease will become endemic unless water treatment practices are improved . The Tropical Diseases and Research Center (TDRC) in Ndola recently organized a 1-day symposium on epidemic diarrhea, cholera, and dysentery in Zambia to stimulate discussion of disease prevention methods .

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Sep 1, 36(17), 3872 - 8
Photocatalytic oxidation of arsenite in TiO2 suspension: kinetics and mechanisms; Lee H et al.; Arsenite {As(III)} and arsenate {As(V)} are highly toxic aquatic contaminants . Since arsenite is more mobile in natural waters and less efficiently removed in adsorption/coagulation processes than arsenate, the oxidation of arsenite to arsenate is desirable in water treatment . We performed the photocatalytic oxidation of arsenite in aqueous TiO2 suspension and investigated the effects of pH, dissolved oxygen, humic acid (HA), and ferric ions on the kinetics and mechanisms of arsenite oxidation . Arsenite oxidation in UV-illuminated TiO2 suspension was highly efficient in the presence of dissolved oxygen . Homogeneous photooxidation of arsenite in the absence of TiO2 was negligibly slow . Since the addition of excess tert-butyl alcohol (OH radical scavenger) did not reduce the rate of arsenite oxidation, the OH radicals should not be responsible for As(III) oxidation . The addition of HA increased both arsenite oxidation and H2O2 production at pH 3 under illumination, which could be ascribed to the enhanced superoxide generation through sensitization . We propose that the superoxide is the main oxidant of arsenite in the TiO2/UV process . The addition of ferric ions also significantly enhanced the arsenite photooxidation . In this case, the addition of tert-butyl alcohol reduced the arsenite oxidation rate, which implied thatthe OH radical-mediated oxidation path was operative in the presence of ferric ions . Since both Fe3+ and HA that were often found with the arsenic in groundwater were beneficial to the photocatalytic oxidation of arsenite, the TiO2/UV process could be a viable pretreatment method . This can be as simple as exposing the arsenic-polluted water in a TiO2-coated trough to sunlight.

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Sep 1, 36(17), 3855 - 63
Removal of pharmaceuticals during drinking water treatment; Ternes TA et al.; The elimination of selected pharmaceuticals (bezafibrate, clofibric acid, carbamazepine, diclofenac) during drinking water treatment processes was investigated at lab and pilot scale and in real waterworks . No significant removal of pharmaceuticals was observed in batch experiments with sand under natural aerobic and anoxic conditions, thus indicating low sorption properties and high persistence with nonadapted microorganisms . These results were underscored by the presence of carbamazepine in bank-filtrated water with anaerobic conditions in a waterworks area . Flocculation using iron(III) chloride in lab-scale experiments (Jar test) and investigations in waterworks exhibited no significant elimination of the selected target pharmaceuticals . However, ozonation was in some cases very effective in eliminating these polar compounds . In lab-scale experiments, 0.5 mg/L ozone was shown to reduce the concentrations of diclofenac and carbamazepine by more than 90%, while bezafibrate was eliminated by 50% with a 1.5 mg/L ozone dose . Clofibric acid was stable even at 3 mg/L ozone . Under waterworks conditions, similar removal efficiencies were observed . In addition to ozonation, filtration with granular activated carbon (GAC) was very effective in removing pharmaceuticals . Except for clofibric acid, GAC in pilot-scale experiments and waterworks provided a major elimination of the pharmaceuticals under investigation.

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Sep 1, 36(17), 3844 - 9
Experimental design to optimize preparation of activated carbons for use in water treatment; Bacaoui A et al.; A series of seven activated carbons was obtained for use in drinking water treatments by steam-activation of olive-waste cakes . This raw material is an abundant and cheap waste byproduct of oil production, making these activated carbons economically feasible . The activated carbons, prepared by the one step method, were characterized, and the evolution of their characteristics (yield, adsorption capacities, and porosity) was analyzed as a function of the experimental parameters (activation temperature and activation time), using the Doehlert matrix . The Doehlert matrix allows the response surface to be studied with a good quality parameter estimation of the quadratic model . Each response has been described by a second order model that was adequate to predict responses in all experimental regions . The coefficients of the postulated model were calculated from the experimental responses by means of least squares regression, using the NEMROD software . We determined the region in which the optimum values of both activation temperature and activation time were achieved for the preparation of activated carbons suitable for use in water treatments . The "optimal activated carbon" was experimentally obtained, and its characteristic parameters showed a good agreement with those calculated from the model . The results obtained for activated carbons prepared by the one-step method were compared with those for activated carbons prepared by the two-step method . The characteristics of activated carbons obtained by the one-step and two-step methods showed that "one-step" activated carbons have a highly developed porous texture formed mainly of large macropores and micropores, whereas "two-step" activated carbons have a predominance of mesopores and narrow micropores . These activated carbons from olive-waste cakes showed a high capacity to adsorb herbicides (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4-D; and 2-methyl, 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, MCPA) from water, with adsorption capacity values higher than those corresponding to a commercial activated carbon used from drinking water treatments.

Shengzhi Yu Biyun, 1991 May, 11(2), 39 - 43
{Study on polymeric spermicides}; Liu XN; PIP: The currently available spermicides have the disadvantage of high virginal absorbability and short protection time . The long term toxic effects could be a potential problem . This paper proposes research in developing a spermicide from a polymeric substance . Polymeric substances have the advantage of low absorbability which reduces side effects and prolongs protection time . In the experiment, polyethers polyesters, and polyacid were condensed and mixed with salt water to the desired concentration and viscosity . In 6% concentration of various polymeric solution, sperm activity became negative . The carboxyl group is shown to have better spermicidal effects . Under conditions of the same chemical structure, and the same concentration, higher viscosity has better spermicidal effects which shows the importance of molecule contents . The matching of polymeric base material and spermicide solution could also increase the spermicidal effects . The toxicity level carboxyl polymers are believed to be acceptable as they are widely used as food additives and in water treatment . The mechanisms of spermicides of the materials under research could be: 1) Polycarboxyl acid could reduce the calcium concentration which prevents the sperm movement . 2) The combination of polycarboxyl acid with protein may disrupt the functions of protein enzyme . 3) The viscosity of polymeric solution may prevent sperm from getting into the uterine cavity . Further research in polymeric substances and the carboxyl group could be a promising area for developing new kinds of spermicide in the future .

Temas Poblac, 1991 Dec, 1(4), 41 - 50
{Puebla: the contradictions of growth and urban planning in the nineties}; Perez Mendoza S et al.; PIP: A series of questions and observations are presented relating to urban problems resulting from demographic growth and economic development in the city of Puebla, Mexico . Although the date used are primarily for the city of Puebla, the metropolitan conurbation in its totality should be the true focus of study . The major problems in the city of Puebla result from the inability of market forces to satisfy growing needs for employment, housing, and transport, and from limitations on the ability of the municipal administration to provide and improve the public services demanded by the population . If the metropolitan area is not viewed as a whole, there is a great risk that uncontrolled growth will continue while problems in the conurbation will be underestimated . Puebla's most rapid period of growth occurred in the 1960s, when significant development took place in manufacturing . An inventory of proposed solutions to problems of urban development and social welfare in Puebla was conducted using data from the Development Plan of the state of Puebla for 1987-93 and reports of the state government and of municipal government programs for 1987-1990 and 1990-1993 . The various plans mention 281 separate proposals, 218 actions, and 16 strategies . Severe financial limitations and technical and conceptual shortcomings however will probably prevent many from being implemented . Among the persisting problems in Puebla that have been recognized but are likely to worsen are the 38% deficit of drinking water and 30% loss through leakage and waste; the lack of water treatment and inadequate capacity of the sewage system and the failure to operate 7 existing water treatment plants because of the high cost; the lack of solid waste disposal facilities and existence of only 1 landfill that receives only 32% of the 1450 tons of solid waste produced daily; the lack of paved roads and failure to maintain existing roads, and poor planning and inadequacy of public transportation routes . The current 3-year plan contains few significant public works that would address these problems . The basic principal for future planning should be that those who obtain the most benefits from the city should contribute the most to pay for the use of urban facilities . A program of metropolitan-wide planning should be initiated to provide order in the pattern of urban land use, integrating urban and suburban areas .

People Planet, 1993, 2(2), 22 - 4
Fighting for water in the West . United States; Hinchman S; PIP: The US West has more and better engineered dams, reservoirs, canals, pipelines, and water treatment plants than have ever existed in history . People in this region, however, continually worry about a water shortage, because of the West is desert . The giant public works program brings water where it is needed, resulting in the West being the fastest growing region this century . The people are overdrafting aquifers . The rivers and streams are drying up . For example, the Colorado river draining 20% of the West, but it not longer reaches the sea because its water is diverted to urban and agricultural water projects . The West is also experiencing erosion and desertification, loss of wetlands and riparian habitat and wildlife, water pollution, crop failures, and drought and water shortages . Irrigation of marginal lands brings million of tons of salt into the river systems . Bureau of Reclamation water projects are contaminating surrounding areas . Not enough water exists in the West to sustain the current pace of development . Farmers remove enough water from the Ogallala aquifer each year that its level falls 4-6 feet each year, but nature restores only a level of 0.5 inches . A 6-year drought in California has resulted in forced strict water rationing in Los Angeles and San Diego . A wave of new immigrants forces the West to learn either to use less water, to redistribute existing supplies, or to block further population growth . Denver, Colorado, has installed water meters and forces residents to install efficient toilets and shower heads, to replace lawns with artificial grass, and to implement billing systems that discourage excessive water use . Other areas are also starting conservation efforts . Cities, farmers, Indian tribes, the US Forest Service, and environmental groups are fighting over water rights, increasing the price of water . Endangered fish, loss of wetlands and riparian habitat, erosion of river banks, and water pollution are factors limiting economic growth in the US West .

Health Millions, 1993 Apr, 1(2), 18 - 20
"I feel as if I have come to my parents home."; De AM; PIP: A summary is provided of some of the issues touched upon at the Village Health Workers (VHWs) Convention held in Bassi near Jaipur, India, in February/March, 1993 . The convention was organized by the Rajasthan Voluntary Health Association in order to provide a forum to share experiences and to learn from others' successes and mistakes . The setting was a rural, isolated ashram in a supportive communal environment . Participation included 150 people of whom 37 were from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); others were community health workers (CHWs) and development workers . Topics of discussion centered on communalism, women and health, and traditional health systems and approaches . A movie was shown on the development of communalism in India, which clearly indicated that communal tension was a creation of political parties to meet their own ends . Participants desired to work toward communal harmony . The women and health discussion yielded some conclusions: 1) that married women should discuss their health with dais and CHWs . 2) Pregnant women need to be taught how to take personal care of themselves (their hygiene and use of medications) . 3) Dais needed to know and practice the importance of deliveries in clean places, free of germs . 4) Regular training programs for CHWs were needed to learn more about immunizations, deliveries, sanitation, and water purification techniques . Another similar VHW convention was held for the first time in the eastern region of Uttar Pradesh and included 50 CHWs and 15 NGOs . Unlike the Bassi convention, there were few female participants (10 out of 50) . Discussion focused on CHW problems, significant health issues, and communicating health messages . CHWs were successful in spreading education and health awareness through folk presentations, implementing income-generation schemes, facilitating villlagers' use of government resources, providing immunization and safe drinking water, and ensuring periodic training of CHWs . A concern was expressed for more conventions to be held at the district level for a longer period of time .

Finance Dev, 1992 Jun, 29(2), 22 - 3
Environmental problems and developing countries; Critical role of macrophytes in achieving low iron concentrations in mine water treatment wetlands; Department of Civil Engineering, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK . L.C.Batty@ncl.ac.uk

Aerobic wetlands are increasingly being included in mine water treatment systems which need to achieve low residual iron concentrations (<0.5 mg L(-1)) in final discharges . Traditionally the macrophyte components of such systems have been thought to be insignificant sinks for major contaminants such as iron . However, we report high rates of plant uptake of iron where the latter is present at relatively low concentrations, suggesting that macrophytes may well be critical to achieving low residual iron concentrations in final effluents from such systems . The wetland macrophyte Phragmites australis was grown in waters with a range of iron concentrations (0-50 mg L(-1)) . At an Fe supply of 1 mg L(-1) almost 100% of the Fe was taken up into plant tissues . The majority of iron was stored in and around the roots of the plants, which helps allay fears of possible release of contaminants during seasonal die-back of emergent shoots and leaves . The 1 mg L(-1) threshold also proved to be important in terms of plant growth, with significant inhibition (evident in root length and in dry weights of shoots and roots) in plants grown in waters with Fe above this concentration . No direct causal relationship between iron content in aerial tissues and growth inhibition was found, which strongly suggests that iron toxicity cannot explain these results . These results have implications for the design of mine water treatment wetlands, particularly with regard to initial establishment of vegetation and achieving sufficient Fe removal in "polishing" applications (i.e . where it is intended to remove the last few mg L(-1) of Fe).

J Thai Assoc Volunt Steriliz . 1983 Dec;:75-85.
Family planning is the first and most important step for rural development; Mokarapong T; PIP: Mahasarakham province in Thailand has adopted family planning as its primary development policy . Although not a new issue, family planning until now has been largely ignored by most government sectors . Most consider family planning to be the sole responsibility of the Ministry of Public Ealth (MOPH), and this is why family planning has not been as successful as it should be . Discussion covers the general problem (rapid population increase, limited arable land, productivity, social and economic development, and deforestation), problems of family planning in the past (trained personnel and accessibility and government sectors ignoring or hindering family planning programs), integrated rural development (motivation, mobilizing teamwork, the integrated approach, mobile medical team, family planning for both the rich and the poor, and emphasis on vasectomy and IUD), objectives of the family planning program, and implementation . Mahasarakham uses an integrated rural development approach that emphasizes 9 development components: family planning, fisheries development, vegetable growing, water purification, rice banks, soy beans, using anchovies for natural fish sauce, insect extermination by electricity, and fuel from rice banks . All of these components contribute to the development of a better quality of rural life . The major problem is population growth, which at 1.8% remains high . Mahasarakham will promote the family planning program as the top priority, and this service will be brought to the people . The objectives of the family planning program are: to reduce the population growth rate Mahasarakham to zero growth within 2-3 years: to provide access to family planning services to all people in Mahasarakham; to educate people about family planning to increase its acceptance: to initiate a proper rural development program in Mahasarakham; and to promote intergovernmental cooperation by means of the integrated approach, which will have good results in later rural development programs . In fiscal year 1963 family planning in Mahasarakham will place new emphasis on vasectomy and IUD insertion . The program expects to reach a target of not less than 30,000 acceptors . A monthly family planning service in each district must have a minimum of 300 IUD acceptors . All government sectors will be involved in and responsible for this rural development program .

Dev Dig, 1983 Dec, 21(2), 114 - 7
Comic books carry health messages to rural children in Honduras; Vigano O; PIP: This article reports on the use of children as message carriers in a rural water and sanitation project in western Honduras . The Honduran Water and Sanitation Project represents the 1st such effort to have a specific health education component . It was decided to direct the education component toward children because of their important role in providing and handling drinking water and caring for younger members of the family . Rural primary schools surfaced as a potential channel of communication . The comic book format was selected because it is simple enough to be used in the schools without much training, economical to produce (US$0.30/copy), effective and attractive to children, and consistent with the Project's philosophy that dialogue and participation are essential components of health education . Each comic book contains a single-concept message, e.g., 1 cause of water contamination or a method of water purification . The 1st module was pretested in 3 rural schools . Following classroom study of the comic book, correct answers on 5 questions related to the comic book story increased from 59% to 80% . 95% of the children indicated that they liked the characters, and teachers expressed satisfaction with the materials . 1200 copies of the 1st module have been distributed to 30 rural schools, and production plans include 11 additional modules on topics such as prevention of water-related sickness and personal hygiene .

J Nephrol, 2002 Jul-Aug, 15(4), 374 - 9
Microbiological quality of hemodialysis water in a three-year multicenter study in Uruguay; Zunino P et al.; BACKGROUND: The microbiological quality of treated water is a very important issue in hemodialysis (HD) centers . Water treatment may have a dramatic effect on microbial contamination because of bacterial colonisation of the different parts of the system such as storage tanks, softeners or deionisers . Therefore, HD centers must have stringent quality programmes including regular water monitoring for microbiological analysis . We report the results of a three-year study (July 97 to June 2000) including bacteriological quality analysis of 3129 water samples from 32 out of 38 HD centers throughout Uruguay . METHODS: Bacteriological analysis of water samples was based on heterotrophic count, total coliform count and Pseudomonas aeruginosa presence/absence, according to the procedures proposed by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) . RESULTS: Heterotrophic counts of 83% of the samples were under 200 colony forming units (CFU) /mL (AAMI limit of compliance) and the water samples after the final bactericidal treatment showed 99% compliance . The points showing the worst results were softeners and deionisers (60% acceptance) . CONCLUSIONS: In comparison with a similar study in Uruguay, from January 96 to June 97 at the same microbiological laboratory, there has been a marked improvement in the microbiological quality of water for hemodialysis.

Water Res, 2002 Aug, 36(14), 3573 - 81
Evaluation of aluminum-silicate polymer composite as a coagulant for water treatment; Gao BY et al.; Aluminum-silicate polymer composite (PASiC), a new kind of inorganic coagulant, was produced by two approaches: (1) hydroxylation of the mixture of AlCl3 and fresh polysilicate (PASiCc); (2) hydroxylated polyaluminum-chloride (PAC) combined with fresh polysilicate (PASiCm) . The PASiC products had the following properties: Al2O3 content = 6.40-7.30%, SiO2 content = 0.40-0.82%, Al/Si ratios = 10-20, basicity (OH/Al molar ratio, denoted B) = 1.2-2.0 . The coagulation behaviour of PASiC and PAC under conditions typical for coagulation and flocculation in water treatment were investigated by studying the rate of floc size development, the variety of streaming current value, the efficiency of turbidity removal and the effect of pH on the turbidity removal efficiency, and the stability of PASiC . The results detailed in this study suggest that, compared with PAC, PASiC may enhance aggregating efficiency and give better coagulating effects, but weaken charge effectiveness in coagulation process or become unstable when stored for longer time, especially at higher B value and lower Al/Si ratio . The coagulating effect of PASiC is closely linked to the preparation procedure . With the increase of B value and the decrease of Al/Si ratio, the coagulation efficiency of PASiC increases, and at the same B value and Al/Si ratio, PASiCc seems to give a little better coagulation effect than PASiCm but less stability . The Al/Si ratio should not be too low or the B value should not be too high, otherwise, the PASiC products tend to become cloudy or partly gelatinous, which will make them loss some coagulation efficiency.

Water Res, 2002 Aug, 36(14), 3523 - 32
Effect of NOM and biofilm on the removal of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in rapid filters; Dai X et al.; Laboratory experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of biofilm and natural organic matter (NOM) on removal of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from water by filtration . The bench-scale rapid filters consisted of 2.54 cm ID x 30.5 cm polycarbonate plastic columns packed with 0.55 mm spherical glass beads to a depth of 25 cm and a porosity of 40% . Calcium chloride (0.01 M) served as the coagulant in most of the experiments . The oocyst removal efficiency decreased from 51 +/- 6% for a clean bed to 23 +/- 3% for the biofilm-coated bed and to 14 +/- 1% in the presence of 5 ppm of NOM . The oocyst removal for an experiment with a combination of biofilm-coated filter media and NOM was similar to that for the experiment with NOM alone (15 +/- 1%) . The zeta potential values for the oocysts pre-equilibrated with NOM were significantly more negative than those obtained for untreated oocysts . This suggests that NOM enhanced the electrostatic repulsion between the oocysts and the negatively charged glass beads . Fortunately, use of alum as coagulant at a dosage sufficient to neutralize the surface charge of the NOM-coated oocysts resulted in a high removal efficiency (73 +/- 6%) . Pre-equilibration of the oocysts with NOM also increased the hydrophobicity of the oocysts, but this was deemed to have a negligible effect on deposition onto the glass beads . The results of these experiments suggest that water treatment facilities treating source waters with moderate organic matter concentrations and/or employing biologically active filters have a greater potential for oocyst breakthrough and proper coagulation is critical for effective removal of oocysts in the filters.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(3), 81 - 8
From municipal sewage to drinking water: fate and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment in urban areas; Heberer T et al.; Recently, the occurrence and fate of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the aquatic environment was recognized as one of the emerging issues in environmental chemistry and as a matter of public concern . Residues of PhACs have been found as contaminants in sewage, surface, and ground- and drinking water samples . Since June 2000, a new long-term monitoring program of sewage, surface, ground- and drinking water has been carried out in Berlin, Germany . Samples, collected periodically from selected sites in the Berlin area, are investigated for residues of PhACs and related contaminants . The purpose of this monitoring is to investigate these compounds over a long time period to get more reliable data on their occurrence and fate in the different aquatic compartments . Moreover, the surface water investigations allow the calculation of season-dependent contaminant loads in the Berlin waters . In the course of the monitoring program, PhACs and some other polar compounds were detected at concentrations up to the microg/L-level in all compartments of the Berlin water cycle . The monitoring is accompanied and supported by several other investigations such as laboratory column experiments and studies on bank filtration and drinking water treatment using conventional or membrane filtration techniques.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 46(3), 131 - 8
Particle transport in a karst aquifer: natural and artificial tracer experiments with bacteria, bacteriophages and microspheres; Auckenthaler A et al.; Fast changes in spring water quality in karst areas are a major concern for production of drinking water and require detailed knowledge of the complex interaction between karst aquifer, transport behavior of microorganisms and water treatment . We have conducted artificial and natural particle transport experiments at a karst spring with bacteria, bacteriophages, microspheres, and pathogens . Transport of the investigated microorganisms, turbid matter and chemical pullutants as well as increase in discharge are strongly related to precipitation and the heterogeneity of the aquifer . The indicator bacteria E . coli revealed a significant correlation to verotoxin-producing E coli and Cryptosporidium spp . We conclude that artificial particle tracers can help identify 'hot spots' for microbial recharge and that system parameters in spring water such as turbidity, UV-extinction and increase in discharge can be key parameters for efficient raw water management.

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Aug 15, 36(16), 3571 - 6
Fouling of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes by natural waters; Howe KJ et al.; Membrane filtration (microfiltration and ultrafiltration) has become an accepted process for drinking water treatment, but membrane fouling remains a significant problem . The objective of this study was to systematically investigate the mechanisms and components in natural waters that contribute to fouling . Natural waters from five sources were filtered in a benchtop filtration system . A sequential filtration process was used in most experiments . The first filtration steps removed specific components from the water, and the latter filtration steps investigated membrane fouling by the remaining components . Particulate matter (larger than 0.45 microm) was relatively unimportant in fouling as compared to dissolved matter . Very small colloids, ranging from about 3-20 nm in diameter, appeared to be important membrane foulants based on this experimental protocol . The colloidal foulants included both inorganic and organic matter, but the greatest fraction of material was organic . When the colloidal fraction of material was removed, the remaining dissolved organic matter (DOM), which was smaller than about 3 nm and included about 85-90% of the total DOM, caused very little fouling . Thus, although other studies have identified DOM as a major foulant during filtration of natural waters, this work shows that a small fraction of DOM may be responsible for fouling . Adsorption was demonstrated to be an important mechanism for fouling by colloids.

Microbiology, 2002 Sep, 148(Pt 9), 2831 - 46
Molecular phylogeny of type II methane-oxidizing bacteria isolated from various environments; Heyer J et al.; Type II methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) were isolated from diverse environments, including rice paddies, pristine and polluted freshwaters and sediments, mangrove roots, upland soils, brackish water ecosystems, moors, oil wells, water purification systems and livestock manure . Isolates were identified based on morphological traits as either Methylocystis spp., Methylosinus sporium or Methylosinus trichosporium . Molecular phylogenies were constructed based on nearly complete 16S rRNA gene sequences, and on partial sequences of genes encoding PmoA (a subunit of particulate methane monooxygenase), MxaF (a subunit of methanol dehydrogenase) and MmoX (a subunit of soluble methane monooxygenase) . The maximum pairwise 16S rDNA difference between isolates was 4.2%, and considerable variability was evident within the Methylocystis (maximum difference 3.6%) . Due to this variability, some of the published 'specific' oligonucleotide primers for type II MOB exhibit multiple mismatches with gene sequences from some isolates . The phylogenetic tree constructed from pmoA gene sequences closely mirrored that constructed from 16S rDNA sequences, and both supported the presently accepted taxonomy of type II MOB . Contrary to previously published phylogenetic trees, morphologically distinguishable species were generally monophyletic based on pmoA or 16S rRNA gene sequences . This was not true for phylogenies constructed from mmoX and mxaF gene sequences . The phylogeny of mxaF gene sequences suggested that horizontal transfer of this gene may have occurred across type II MOB species . Soluble methane monooxygenase could not be detected in many Methylocystis strains either by an enzyme activity test (oxidation of naphthalene) or by PCR-based amplification of an mmoX gene.

Physiol Behav, 2002 Sep, 77(1), 55 - 64
Isolation rearing-induced deficits in prepulse inhibition and locomotor habituation are not potentiated by water deprivation; Powell SB et al.; Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex is an operational measure of sensorimotor gating and is reduced in neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia . Isolation rearing of rats is a developmentally specific, nonpharmacological manipulation that leads to deficits in sensorimotor gating that mimic those observed in schizophrenia patients . This study examined the effects of an added stressor (water deprivation) on the magnitude of the isolation rearing effect on PPI and locomotor activity . At the time of weaning, male (n = 80) and female (n = 80) rats were assigned to either social housing or isolation housing and were subsequently assigned to the water-deprived or non-water-deprived groups . Rats were tested for acoustic startle and PPI at 3, 5 and 7 weeks postweaning . Isolated rats showed a significant decrease in PPI that was apparent at all 3 weeks . Water deprivation did not significantly affect PPI, nor was there a significant interaction between housing and water treatment or between sex and housing . When tested in the Behavior Pattern Monitor to assess locomotor activity, isolated rats displayed decreased habituation across the 1-h test session . Water deprivation did not affect locomotor activity in any significant, independent manner, nor did it potentiate the effects of isolation rearing on locomotor habituation . In these studies, both male and female Long-Evans rats were sensitive to the PPI-disruptive and locomotor-activating effects of social isolation . Isolation rearing significantly disrupts PPI and locomotor habituation independent of any effects of water deprivation .

AIDS Educ Prev, 2002 Aug, 14(4), 269 - 81
An evaluation of the effectiveness of a peer sexual health intervention among secondary-school students in Zambia; Agha S; This study investigated whether there were any changes in knowledge and normative beliefs regarding abstinence and condoms and personal risk perception of acquiring HIV among Zambian secondary-school students who were exposed to a peer sexual health intervention . Schools were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups . A baseline assessment that measured knowledge, normative beliefs about abstinence and condoms and personal risk perception was conducted in all schools . Students in the intervention group were exposed for a 1-hour-and-45-minute-long in-class peer sexual health intervention . Students in the control schools were exposed to a 1-hour-long in-class peer water purification intervention . A follow-up assessment of students was conducted after the intervention . Logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine whether significant differences between intervention and control groups emerged at follow-up . Relative to students in the control group, knowledge was higher and normative beliefs about abstinence and condoms were significantly more positive among students in the intervention schools . Students in the intervention schools also had a higher personal risk perception of acquiring HIV than students in control schools . These findings show that a school-based peer sexual health intervention implemented in Zambia was effective in increasing knowledge, positive normative beliefs about abstinence and condoms, and personal risk perception.

J Environ Sci (China), 2002 Jul, 14(3), 317 - 24
Experimental analysis of a nitrogen removal process simulation of wastewater land treatment under three different wheat planting densities; Wang HQ et al.; Nitrogen contaminant transport, transformation and uptake simulation experiments were conducted in green house under three different planting density of winter wheat . They were Group A, planting density of 0.0208 plants/cm2, Group B, 0.1042 plants/cm2, and Group C, 0.1415 plants/cm2 . The capacity and ratio of nitrogen removal were different on three kinds of conditions of wastewater land treatment . From analysis of wastewater treatment capacity, wastewater concentration and irrigation intensity for Group C were suitable and nitrogen quantity added was 2 times of that for Group B, 2.6 times for Group A while nitrogen residue was only 7.06% . Hence, wastewater irrigation and treatment design with purpose of waste water treatment should select the design with maximum capacity, optimal removal ratio and least residue in soil, which was closely related to crop planting density, crop growth status and also background nitrogen quantity in soil.

J Biomed Mater Res, 2002, 63(5), 522 - 30
Effect of water treatment on the apatite-forming ability of NaOH-treated titanium metal; Uchida M et al.; NaOH and heat treatments of titanium metal induce an apatite-forming ability on the metal by producing a bioactive graded sodium titanate structure on its surface . An enhancement of the apatite-forming ability of titanium metal induced by the NaOH treatment was attempted by conjoining the water and heat treatments . These treatments are assumed to convert the sodium titanate into anatase, which is presumed to be more effective for apatite nucleation . The sodium titanate gel on the metal formed from the NaOH treatment was shown to transform into anatase by a simple immersion in pure water, with subsequent heat treatments . Forming anatase on the metal significantly improved the apatite-forming ability of the metal in a simulated body fluid (SBF) . The apatite-forming ability correlated directly with the amount of anatase on the metal . It is therefore expected that bioactive titanium metal and its alloys with a higher bone-bonding ability can be obtained with the use of the water and subsequent heat treatments after the NaOH treatment .

Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2002 May, 66(5), 584 - 9
Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia; Quick RE et al.; A water quality intervention that consists of water treatment, safe storage, and community education was field tested in Kitwe, Zambia . A total of 166 intervention households were randomly selected from one community and 94 control households from another . Baseline surveys were conducted and the intervention was distributed . Weekly active diarrhea surveillance, biweekly water testing, and a follow-up survey were conducted . Compliance was high in intervention households: 97% reported using disinfectant and 72-95% had measurable chlorine in their water in biweekly testing . The percentage of intervention households storing water safely increased from 41.5% to 89.2% . Stored water in intervention households was significantly less contaminated with Escherichia coli than water in control households (P < 0.001) . Diarrheal disease risk for individuals in intervention households was 48% lower than for controls (95% confidence interval = 0.3, 0.9) . This intervention is a useful tool for preventing waterborne diseases in families in developing countries who lack access to potable water.

Environ Monit Assess, 2002 Aug, 77(3), 229 - 42
The importance of temperature in assessing iron pipe corrosion in water distribution systems; McNeill LS et al.; Temperature is expected to play a significant role in the corrosion of iron pipes in drinking water distribution systems . Temperature impacts many parameters that are critical to pipe corrosion including biological activity, physical properties of the solution, thermodynamic and physical properties of corrosion scale, and chemical rates . Moreover, variations in temperature and temperature gradients may give rise to new corrosion phenomena worthy of consideration by water treatment personnel.

Water Sci Technol, 2002, 45(10), 341 - 7
Controlling calcium precipitation in an integrated anaerobic-aerobic treatment system of a "zero-discharge" paper mill; van Lier JB et al.; The pulp and paper industry uses significant amounts of water and energy for the paper production process . Closing the water cycles in this industry, therefore, promises large benefits for the environment and has the potential of huge cost savings for the industry . Closing the water cycle on the other hand also introduces problems with process water quality, quality of the end-product and scaling, owing to increased water contamination . An inline treatment system is discussed in which anaerobic-aerobic bioreactors perform a central role for removing both organic and inorganic pollutants from the process water cycle . In the proposed set-up, the organic compounds are converted to methane gas and reused for energy supply, while sulphur compounds are stripped from the process cycle and calcium carbonate is removed by precipitation . Improved control of the treatment system will direct the inorganic precipitates to a location where it does not adversely affect paper production and process water treatment . A simulation program for triggering and controlling CaCO3 precipitation was developed that takes both biological conversions and all relevant chemical equilibria in the system into account . Simulation results are in good agreement with data gathered in a full-scale "zero-emission" paper plant and indicate that control of CaCO3 precipitation can be improved, e.g . in the aerobic post-treatment . Alternatively, a separate precipitation unit could be considered.

Environ Sci Technol, 2002 Aug 1, 36(15), 3412 - 9
Photocatalytic oxidation of bacteria, bacterial and fungal spores, and model biofilm components to carbon dioxide on titanium dioxide-coated surfaces; Wolfrum EJ et al.; We report carbon mass balance and kinetic data for the total oxidation of cells, spores, and biomolecules deposited on illuminated titanium dioxide surfaces in contact with air . Carbon dioxide formation by photocatalytic oxidation of methanol, glucose, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis (cells and spores), Aspergillus niger spores, phosphatidylethanolamine, bovine serum albumin, and gum xanthan was determined as a function of time . The quantitative data provide mass balance and rate information for removal of these materials from a photocatalytic surface . This kind of information is importantfor applications of photocatalytic chemistry in air and water purification and disinfection, self-cleaning surfaces, and the development of self-cleaning air filters.

J Chromatogr A, 2002 Jul 19, 963(1-2), 265 - 75
Determination of toxic compounds in paper-recycling process waters by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; Rigol A et al.; Three analytical methods were developed for the determination of toxic compounds in recirculating waters of a paper-recycling industry . Three main groups of compounds were considered: (i) wood extractives originated from the raw material; (ii) biocides added during the production process and (iii) surfactants and other adjuvants present in the formulates of these biocides . Wood extractives considered in this study included fatty and resin acids . They were analysed by liquid-liquid extraction using methyl tert.-butyl ether, followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for previous formation of the respective trimethylsilyl esters . Water samples were also extracted with Oasis HLB (copolymer {poly(divinylbenzene-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone}) solid-phase extraction cartridges of 60 mg and analysed by liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry for the determination of additives and biocides . Using these two approaches levels up to 15 mg/l for total resin and fatty acids, 5 mg/l for alkylbenzene sulfonates and 2-(thiocyanomethylthio)benzotiazol, 100 microg/l for bisphenol A and 2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilepropionamide, and 300 microg/l for nonylphenol ethoxycarboxylate were detected in process waters at different production treatment stages . These levels are of relevance since poor water quality affects the paper-recycling process, the primary water treatment process and eventually, the environmental water quality.

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