J Toxicol Environ Health A, 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26, 67(20-22), 1591 - 617 Managing the microbiological risks of drinking water; Krewski D et al.; The microbiological contamination of drinking water supplies can have serious health consequences for consumers, and this has been dramatically illustrated in recent years by two disease outbreaks in Canada . In this paper, some factors that can influence the microbiological quality of drinking water and its management are examined . Frameworks have been proposed that help to clarify the main elements of health risk assessment and risk management, and, in accordance with these, risks can be logically characterized, evaluated and controlled . A protocol has been developed for microbiological risk assessment and a risk management framework now guides the development of Canada's national guidelines for drinking-water quality . Monitoring of indicator organisms and the application of adequate water treatment are the primary means recommended in the Canadian guidelines to safeguard health from the presence of water-borne pathogens . Understanding the biological characteristics of microbial pathogens is necessary for assessing their impact on community health and appraising the rationale behind drinking-water testing methods and their limitations . Improvements in health surveillance, monitoring, and risk characterization and application of concepts such as multiple barriers (source-to-tap) and total quality management should contribute to better management of the microbiological quality of drinking water. Environ Res, 2004 Nov, 96(3), 345 - 52 Trihalomethanes and associated potential cancer risks in the water supply in Ankara, Turkey; Tokmak B et al.; The occurrence of trihalomethanes (THMs) in the water supply in the Ankara, Turkey was investigated . Total THMs and total organic carbon measurements were carried seasonally in the samples collected form 22 different districts along with the samples taken from the Ivedik Water Treatment Plant serving 90% of the city . The average summer nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPOC) concentration in the raw water was 4.2 mg/L, and the NPOC removal achieved in the treatment plant was 31% . The concentration of total THMs ranged from 25 to 74 microg/L, from 28 to 73 microg/L, and from 25 to 110 microg/L in winter, spring, and summer, respectively . In all of the samples chloroform existed at the highest concentrations, while bromoform was almost absent . The total THM concentrations were highest in summer for all districts . However, none of the concentrations detected exceeded the USEPA's Stage I limit of 80 microg/L and the EU's limit of 100 microg/L . However, the total THM level in 64% of the districts exceeded the USEPA's Stage II limit of 40 microg/L . The risk estimations carried out indicated that each year 1 of the 5 million Ankara residents could get cancer from the daily intake of water, mainly because of exposure to chloroform through oral ingestion. Environ Sci Technol, 2004 Aug 1, 38(15), 4134 - 9 Odorous products of the chlorination of phenylalanine in water: formation, evolution, and quantification; Freuze I et al.; To explain some of the possible origins of an odor episode which took place in a drinking water supply in the region of Paris (France), the chlorination reaction in water of phenylalanine was studied . This amino acid was chosen for first experiments because of its physical and chemical particular properties . Changes in the different byproducts formed were followed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) over a period of time . N-chlorophenylalanine (mono-N-chlorinated amino acid) and then phenylacetaldehyde were the major products formed for the lower chlorine to nitrogen molar ratios . For Cl/N molar ratios of 1 and beyond, phenylacetonitrile and N-chlorophenylacetaldimine appeared and increased with the chlorination level . N-chlorophenylacetaldimine was quantified by using its difference of stability in various organic solvents . Our attention was first directed to the monochlorinated derivative but further examination indicated that it could not be responsible for odor troubles: it dissociated before reaching the consumer's tap and it was produced at consistently low yields under conditions relevant to drinking water treatment . On the contrary, chloroaldimine appeared to be a very odorous and water-stable product: it strongly smells of swimming pool with a floral background . The odor detection threshold is about 3 microg x L(-1) and it can persist for more than one week at 18 degrees C . It is now suspected of being a source of off-flavor concerns among consumers. Water Res, 2004 Oct, 38(17), 3738 - 50 Impact of a magnetic ion exchange resin on ozone demand and bromate formation during drinking water treatment; Johnson CJ et al.; The objective of this research was to examine the impact of a magnetic ion exchange resin (MIEX) on ozone demand and bromate formation in two different ozonated waters at bench scale . The first raw water had a high bromide ion concentration, a high ozone demand, and was highly colored . Based on experimental findings from the first water, the second water was selected as a model water in which more controlled experiments were performed . The waters were treated with the MIEX resin using jar test procedures to find the optimal MIEX dosage based upon the removal of ultraviolet (UV)-absorbing substances, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and bromide . The optimal resin dosage was chosen for bulk MIEX treatment and subsequent ozonation in a semi-batch reactor . The ozone demand and formation of bromate were analyzed as a function of ozone dosage and dissolved ozone concentration for the MIEX pre-treated water, and compared to the results obtained by ozonating the water without MIEX pre-treatment . The results indicate that pre-treatment of the water with the MIEX resin significantly reduces total organic carbon, DOC, UV absorbance, color, and to some extent, bromide . MIEX pre-treatment of the water prior to ozonation substantially lowered the ozone demand and formation of bromate during subsequent ozonation. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(2), 277 - 84 Effect of irrigation water quality on organic matter, Cd and Cu mobility in soils of Central Mexico; Herre A et al.; Untreated wastewater has been used for irrigation since 1912 at the Irrigation District 03, Central Mexico . Accumulated heavy metals are dominantly bound to the organic soil fraction . In a field study we evaluated the effect of wastewater irrigation on the quality of soil organic matter and the amount of water extractable Cu and Cd . In a column experiment we tested if water treatment affects the leaching of both metals and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) out of soils that have been irrigated for more than 90 years with untreated wastewater . The field study shows that long term irrigation increases the mineralizable carbon fraction and the DOC concentrations . The water extractable Cu and Cd concentrations also increase and correlate with DOC . In the column leachates the Cu concentrations also correlate with DOC, the Cd concentrations correlate with the sum of cations, chloride and DOC concentrations . Water treatment reduced Cd leaching, but it did have no substantial effect on Cu leaching. J Colloid Interface Sci, 2004 Sep 15, 277(2), 417 - 23 Intraparticle phosphorus diffusion in a drinking water treatment residual at room temperature; Makris KC et al.; Phosphorus (P) has been recognized as one of the major limiting nutrients that are responsible for eutrophication of surface waters, worldwide . Efforts have been concentrated on reducing P loads reaching water bodies, via surface runoff and/or leaching through a soil profile . Use of drinking water treatment residuals (WTRs) is an emerging cost-effective practice to reduce soluble P in poorly P-sorbing soils or systems high in P . Literature suggests that WTRs have huge P sorption capacities . We hypothesized that P sorption would be limited by diffusional constraints imposed by the WTR particles . Selected chemical and physical (specific surface area, particle size distribution) characteristics of an iron-based WTR were measured . Sorption P isotherms at room temperature were constructed, and sorption kinetics were monitored . An intraparticle diffusion model was utilized to fit the kinetic data . Results showed that the WTR dramatically reduced soluble P, showing nonequilibrium characteristics, even after 80 d of reaction . Specific surface area (SSA) measured with CO2 gas was significantly greater than the traditional BET-N2 value (28 versus 3.5 m2 g(-1)), suggesting that a large amount of internal surfaces might be present in the WTR . The intraparticle P diffusion model was modified to include the wide particle size distribution of the WTR . The intraparticle diffusion model fitted the data well (r2 = 0.83) . We calculated a maximum apparent P diffusion coefficient value of 4 x 10(-15) cm2 s(-1), which agrees with published values for intraparticle diffusion in microporous sorbents . This work may be useful for predicting long-term sorption characteristics of WTRs, since WTRs have been suggested as potential long-term immobilizers of sorbed P in P-sensitive ecosystems. Yakugaku Zasshi, 2004 Sep, 124(9), 605 - 11 {Effects of the flavonoid fraction from Ginkgo biloba extract on the postprandial blood glucose elevation in rats}; Tanaka S et al.; The present study investigated the effects of Ginkgo biloba extract and its flavonoid fractions on alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase activity in vitro . Ginkgo biloba extracts and their flavonoid fraction significantly inhibited alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase activity in vitro . Furthermore, Ginkgo biloba extracts and their flavonoid fraction reduced the elevation of rat plasma glucose level after oral administration of various saccharinity agents . In addition, we examined the effects of the flavonoid fraction isolated from Ginkgo biloba extracts on the plasma glucose level in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats . When flavonoid fractions were orally administered to the rats three times daily for 9 days, plasma glucose concentrations were decreased compared with those in the water treatment group . Furthermore, flavonoid fractions reduced the elevation of rat plasma glucose levels after oral administration of sucrose and glucose in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Water Environ Res, 2004 May-Jun, 76(3), 231 - 7 An experimental study of air entrainment and oxygen transfer at a water jet from a nozzle with air holes; Baylar A et al.; An adequate supply of dissolved oxygen is important in natural rivers and in some water treatment processes . The dissolved oxygen concentration can be enhanced by entraining air bubbles in a receiving pool . When a water jet impinges a receiving pool at rest, air bubbles may be entrained and carried away below the pool free surface . This process is called plunging water jet entrainment and aeration . This paper describes an experimental study of the air entrainment rate and oxygen transfer efficiency of circular nozzles with and without air holes . In particular, the effect of varying the number, positions, and open/close status of the air holes is investigated . A negative pressure occurred depending on the air holes opened on the circular nozzles . This phenomenon affected the water jet expansion, water jet shape, air entrainment, and bubble penetration depth and, hence, the oxygen transfer efficiency . It was demonstrated that the air entrainment rate and the oxygen transfer efficiency of the circular nozzles with air holes were better than those of the circular nozzles without air holes . Therefore, adding air holes to a simple, circular nozzle could lead to a significantly increased air entrainment rate and oxygen transfer efficiency. Water Environ Res, 2004 May-Jun, 76(3), 220 - 30 Use of naturally growing aquatic plants for wastewater purification; Zimmels Y et al.; This paper examines potential uses of naturally growing aquatic plants for wastewater purification . These plants enhance the removal of pollutants by consuming part of them in the form of plant nutrients . This applies to urban and agricultural wastewater, in particular, where treatment units of different sizes can be applied at the pollution source . The effectiveness of wastewater purification by different plants was tested on laboratory and pilot scales . The growth rate of the plants was related to the wastewater content in the water . Batch and semicontinuous experiments verified that the plants are capable of decreasing all tested indicators for water quality to levels that permit the use of the purified water for irrigation . This applies to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids . pH, and turbidity . In specific cases, the turbidity reached the level of drinking water . Comparison of BOD concentrations with typical levels in water treatment facilities across the country indicates the effectiveness of water purification with plants . A major effect of treatment with plants was elimination of the disturbing smell from the wastewater . It is shown that mixtures of wastewater and polluted water from the Kishon River are amenable in varying degrees to treatment by the plants . The higher the wastewater content in the mixture, the more effective the treatment by the plants . In this context, a scheme for rehabilitation and restoration of the Kishon River is presented and technical and economical aspects of the purification technology are considered. East Mediterr Health J, 2002 Jan, 8(1), 129 - 40 {Pollution by wastewater from olive oil mills and drinking-water production . Case study of the Sebou river in Morocco}; Foutlane A et al.; The National Office for Drinking Water (ONEP), responsible for the drinking-water supply in Morocco, faces serious difficulties in producing water of good quality at a reasonable price from the River Sebou waters . The ONEP's three water treatment plants have been disrupted or even stopped due to the poor quality of waters received . The main source of pollution is the urban and industrial waste of the town of Fes, compounded by episodic pollution caused by the olive oil mills of Fes and its surrounding area . The ONEP study shows that the additional production costs incurred as a result of the pollution by wastewater from olive oil mills far exceeds the drinking-water rates charged in the study area. Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2004 Jan, 25(1), 114 - 6 {Preliminary investigation on endocrine disrupting chemicals in a sewage treatment plant of Beijing}; Du B et al.; Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) existed in the water treatment units of Beijing based Sewage Treatment Plant were analyzed by SPE-GC/MSD and GC/ECD . Totally 30 EDCs were detected from the influent, effluent and sludge . The results show that about 70%-99% EDCs in the influent were removed after treatment . Sludge adsorption played an important role in the reduction of EDCs . The range of phenols in sludge was 17-35 mg/kg, the range of PAEs was 25-77 mg/kg and the range of PAHs was 1.33-1.74 mg/kg . Compared with the results in other countries in literature, the existence of EDCs in the Sewage Treatment Plant was not serious. Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2004 Jan, 25(1), 95 - 8 {Kinetics and mechanism of aniline oxidation with chlorine dioxide in water}; Fan ZY et al.; Reaction kinetics of aniline oxidation with chlorine dioxide in water were investigated systematically by detecting concentrations of aniline with HPLC at regular intervals . Results showed that the reaction was first-order with respect to both chlorine dioxide and aniline, and the entire reaction was of second-order . Under condition of pH 6.86 and water temperature (Tw) 287 K, the second-order reaction rate constant k was 0.11 L x (mol x s)(-1) . Reaction activation energy was 73.11 kJ x mol(-1), revealing that the reaction could take place under usual water treatment conditions . The reaction rate constants in acidic and alkali media were greater than that in neutral medium . Effect of chlorite ion on the reaction rate was insignificant . P-aminophenol and azobenzene were detected by GC MS as intermediates . Oxidation pathways were proposed and discussed elementarily. Huan Jing Ke Xue, 2004 Jan, 25(1), 72 - 7 {Comparative study on O3/H2O2 and O3/Mn processes for removal of refractory organics in water}; Shi FH et al.; A comparative study of O3/H2O2 and O3/Mn was made to evaluate their respective effectiveness and mechanism for removal of refractory organics from water with nitrobenzene as the model pollutant . It was found that both processes enhanced the degradation of nitrobenzene that can be hardly degraded by ozonation and had respective optimum dosage of H2O2 and Mn(II) under the experimental conditions . By comparing the mechanism of O3/H2O2 process and considering the chemical character of nitrobenzene and variation of residual aqueous ozone, it is speculated that the degradation of nitrobenzene by O3/Mn might follow a radical pathway . As shown by the experimental result, the addition of H2O2 and Mn(II) both improved the mass transfer efficiency of ozone and thus more ozone was consumed for degradation of nitrobenzene, which is also an indication of the radical type reaction mechanism . The characteristic of O3/H2O2 and O3/Mn processes and their application in the drinking water treatment were finally discussed. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2004 Oct, 59(2), 151 - 63 Microcystin-producing blooms--a serious global public health issue; de Figueiredo DR et al.; The investigation on microcystin topics is increasing due to the related ecological and public health risks . Recent investigation confirms a gap in establishing global patterns relating a particular environment to the bloom occurrence of a species and the production of certain microcystin variants . All the results concerning the environmental effects on the microcystin synthesis of one species must be checked in the light of genome diversity . Thus, the poisoning risks of a bloom depend on the strain causing toxicity . To be more effective, specific water treatment methods are required for blooms of different microcystin producing species (such as colonial and filamentous cyanobacteria found in stratified and unstratified water bodies, respectively) . With the increasing number of new microcystin variants discovered, the development of new rapid, inexpensive and sensitive enough monitoring methods to promptly screen simultaneously a great diversity of toxins and also check their toxic effects is becoming necessary. Environ Pollut, 2004 Dec, 132(3), 479 - 88 Inhibition of plasma butyrylcholinesterase activity in the lizard Gallotia galloti palmae by pesticides: a field study; Sanchez-Hernandez JC et al.; A field study was performed to evaluate the effect of exposure to organophosphorus (OP) and carbamate (CB) pesticides on the lizard Gallotia galloti palmae . Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity was measured in the plasma of 420 lizards collected from agricultural and reference areas on the Island of La Palma (Canary Islands, Spain) in two sampling periods . Exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides was evaluated by a statistical criterion based on a threshold value (two standard deviations below the mean enzyme activity) calculated for the reference group, and a chemical criterion based on the in vitro reactivation of BChE activity using pyridine-2-aldoxime methochloride (2-PAM) or after water dilution of the sample . Mean (+/- SD) BChE activity for lizards from agricultural areas was significantly lower (Fuencaliente site = 2.00 +/- 0.98 micromol min(-1) ml(-1), Tazacorte site = 2.88 +/- 1.08) than that for lizards from the reference areas (Los Llanos site = 3.06 +/- 1.17 micromol min(-1) ml(-1), Tigalate site = 3.96 +/- 1.62) . According to the statistical criterion, the number of lizards with BChE depressed was higher at Fuencaliente (22% of males and 25.4% of females) than that sampled at Tazacorte (7.8% of males and 6.2% of females) . According to the chemical criterion, Fuencaliente also yielded a higher number of individuals (112 males and 47 females) with BChE activity inhibited by both OP and CB pesticides . CBs appeared to be the pesticides most responsible for BChE inhibition because most of the samples showed reactivation of BChE activity after water treatment (63.3% from Fuencaliente and 29% from Tazacorte) . We concluded that the use of reactivation techniques on plasma BChE activity is a better and more accurate method for assessing field exposure to OP/CB pesticides in this lizard species than making direct comparisons of enzyme activity levels between sampling areas. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(1), 293 - 9 Cryptosporidium monitoring system at a water treatment plant, based on waterborne risk assessment; Masago Y et al.; The water volume required for daily monitoring of Cryptosporidium (which can statistically ensure an annual risk of infection below 10(-4)), was assessed by evaluating the applicability of the Poisson lognormal (PLN) distribution in microbial risk assessment . PLN showed as good a fit to the observed data as to the negative binomial distribution . From the estimated PLN distributions for the source and finished water, the efficacy of the oocyst removal by the conventional water treatment process was estimated to follow log-normal distribution (median = 3.16 log10, 95% CI = 4.27-2.05 log10) . The 365 consecutive negative results of daily monitoring for 180 L of finished water were found to be statistically equivalent to the annual risk of infection below 10(-4) . This research also suggested the possibility of applying a qualitative detection method, such as CC-PCR, as a routine monitoring method for the quantitative risk management. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(1), 223 - 8 Application of a molecular method for the detection of group A rotaviruses in raw and treated water; van Zyl WB et al.; Group A human rotaviruses (HRVs) are the most important aetiological agents of acute viral gastroenteritis in infants and young children in both developing and industrialised countries . Rotaviruses are resistant to many chemical disinfectants and reportedly survive well in treated tapwater and sewage . In this study a group A specific reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) followed by a nested-PCR was applied for the detection of HRVs in raw and treated drinking-water samples drawn at a water reclamation plant . For a period of two years (July 2000 to June 2002), borehole, raw and treated drinking-water samples were collected weekly . Viruses were recovered from the water samples using a glass wool adsorption-elution technique followed by secondary concentration using precipitation with polyethylene glycol . In the first year of the study group A HRVs were detected in 11% sewage samples, 8% partially treated waters and 5% final treated drinking waters . The results of the second year of the study showed the presence of group A HRVs in 11% sewage and untreated surface water samples, 15% partially treated water and 6.5% final treated drinking waters . No HRVs were detected in the water samples from the boreholes . The presence of group A HRVs in treated drinking-water samples suggested that this water could be a potential source of infection to consumers . The data also implied that either the water treatment did not remove HRVs or the treated water was contaminated post-treatment. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(1), 179 - 83 Evaluation of the purification capacity of nine portable, small-scale water purification devices; Horman A et al.; A test was performed to evaluate the microbial and chemical purification capacity of nine portable, small-scale water purification filter devices with production capacity less than 100 L/h . The devices were tested for simultaneous removal capacity of bacteria (cultured Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter cloacae), enteric protozoans (formalin-stored Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts), viral markers (F-RNA bacteriophages) and microcystins produced by toxic cyanobacterial cultures . In general, the devices tested were able to remove bacterial contaminants by 3.6-6.9 log10 units from raw water . Those devices based only on filtration through pores 0.2-0.4 microm or larger failed in viral and chemical purification . Only one device, based on reverse osmosis, was capable of removing F-RNA phages at concentrations under the detection limit and microcystins by 2.5 log10 . The present study emphasised the need for evaluation tests of water purification devices from the public safety and HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) points of view . Simultaneous testing for various pathogenic/indicator microbes and microcystins was shown to be a useful and practical way to obtain essential data on actual purification capacity of commercial small-scale drinking-water filters. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(1), 165 - 72 Aerobic bacterial spores as process indicators for protozoa cysts in water treatment plants; Galofre B et al.; The possibility of using aerobic spores as indicators (surrogates) of water treatment efficiency for the removal of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts was evaluated in a water treatment plant that supplies the Barcelona area of Spain . The water treatment consists of pre-chlorination, flocculation-sedimentation, double filtration (sand and granular activated carbon, GAC) with intermediate ozonation and post-chlorination . Aerobic spores significantly increased after GAC filtration, which indicated an active propagation of aerobic spore-formers . However, anaerobic (Clostridium) spores could be a good surrogate for Cryptosporidium oocysts, especially if their detection in samples at low concentrations was improved. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 50(1), 159 - 64 Microbicidal efficacy of an advanced oxidation process using ozone/hydrogen peroxide in water treatment; Sommer R et al.; The combined application of ozone and hydrogen peroxide represents a kind of advanced oxidation for water treatment . The radicals that are generated during the process are used for the degradation of organic pollutants from groundwater and industrial effluents . The aim of our study was to evaluate the possible microbicidal, and particularly virucidal, efficacy of such a process, since no substantial data were available . The investigations were performed at a pilot plant installed for the elimination of perchloroethylene from polluted groundwater (reduction efficacy for perchloroethylene from 26 microg/L to 5 microg/L) . To enable a reliable evaluation of the microbicidal effect, a set of alternate test organisms was used . As model viruses we chose bacteriophages MS2 (F+ specific, single-stranded RNA), phiX174 (single-stranded DNA) and PRD-1 (coated, double-stranded DNA) . Furthermore, spores of Bacillus subtilis were included as possible surrogates for protozoa and Escherichia coli as representative for traditional indicator bacteria used in water analysis . The microbicidal efficiency was compared to the inactivation by means of ozone under two standard conditions (20 degrees C): (a) 0.4 mg/L residual after 4 min and (b) 0.1 mg/L residual after 10 min . Surprisingly, a good microbicidal effect of the ozone/hydrogen peroxide process was found . This was somewhat unexpected, because we had assumed that the disinfection potential of ozone would have been interfered with by the presence of hydrogen peroxide . Escherichia coli and the three test viruses revealed a reduction of about 6-log . In contrast, spores of Bacillus subtilis showed after the total process a reduction of 0.4-log . These results matched the effect of the ozone treatment (a) with a residual of 0.4 mg/L after 4 min contact time (20 degrees C) . The test condition (b) with a residual of 0.1 mg/L ozone after a contact time of 10 min at 20 degrees C gave a higher reduction of the B . subtilis spores (1.5-log) . The presented study revealed a satisfying microbicidal efficacy of the ozone/hydrogen peroxide process with respect to vegetative bacteria and viruses (bacteriophages) . However, it has to be emphasised that intense mixing and sufficient contact time have to be optimised and tested for each individual installation. Chemosphere, 2004 Oct, 57(4), 329 - 35 Bromide levels in natural waters: its relationship to levels of both chloride and total dissolved solids and the implications for water treatment; Magazinovic RS et al.; South Australian freshwaters from a wide variety of environments were analysed for bromide and the results correlated with both chloride and total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations . A linear relationship was obtained which allows chloride data to be successfully used to estimate bromide concentrations . Bromide displayed a slightly better correlation with TDS indicating that an improved estimate of bromide could be made by reference to TDS data which is more easily and commonly obtained, and generally available extensively as historical data . The bromide content in relation to its ratio with both chloride and TDS contents was around seventy percent of the corresponding ratios found in seawater, a finding reported in other published data . The ability to estimate bromide concentrations is a potentially useful tool in the drinking water industry as it enables the assessment of the extent of bromate formation (predicted through the use of mathematical models and other water quality data) which is an important factor when ozonation is being considered as a treatment option, particularly as many water industry regulatory bodies have imposed stringent limits on the levels of acceptable bromate. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2004 Dec, 287(6), R1394 - 8 Epub 2004 Aug 12. Sympathetic and angiotensin-dependent hypertension during cage-switch stress in mice; Lee DL et al.; The goal of this study was to determine the dependence of the acute hypertensive response to a novel model of acute psychosocial stress on the sympathetic and renin-angiotensin systems . Baseline mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), and locomotor activity were measured with telemetry in mice for a 1-h period and averaged 98 +/- 1 mmHg, 505 +/- 3 beats/min, and 5 +/- 1 counts, respectively . Stress was induced by placing a mouse into a cage previously occupied by a different male mouse, and this increased MAP, HR, and activity in the control group by 40 +/- 2 mmHg, 204 +/- 25 beats/min, and 68 +/- 6 counts, respectively . Each variable gradually returned to baseline levels by 90 min after beginning cage switch . Pretreatment with terazosin (10 mg/kg ip) significantly reduced the initial increase in MAP to 12 +/- 6 mmHg, whereas MAP for the last 45 min was superimposable on control values . Atenolol (10 mg/ml drinking water) had no effect to blunt the initial increase in MAP but had a growing effect from 10 min onward, decreasing MAP all the way to baseline by 60 min after starting cage switch . Captopril (2 mg/ml drinking water) treatment caused a very similar response . All three treatments significantly decreased the area under the blood pressure curve, and the blood pressure effect could not be attributed uniformly to effects on HR or activity . These data suggest that our novel model of psychosocial stress causes an initial alpha(1)-receptor-dependent increase in MAP . The later phase of the pressor response is blocked similarly by a beta(1)-receptor antagonist and an ACE inhibitor, independent of HR, suggesting that the beta(1)-dependent blood pressure effect is due, in large part, to the renin-angiotensin system. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(11-12), 223 - 30 Hydrogen-based, hollow-fiber membrane biofilm reactor for reduction of perchlorate and other oxidized contaminants; Nerenberg R et al.; Many oxidized pollutants, such as nitrate, perchlorate, bromate, and chlorinated solvents, can be microbially reduced to less toxic or less soluble forms . For drinking water treatment, an electron donor must be added . Hydrogen is an ideal electron donor, as it is non-toxic, inexpensive, and sparsely soluble . We tested a hydrogen-based, hollow-fiber membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) for reduction of perchlorate, bromate, chlorate, chlorite, chromate, selenate, selenite, and dichloromethane . The influent included 5 mg/L nitrate or 8 mg/L oxygen as a primary electron accepting substrate, plus 1 mg/L of the contaminant . The mixed-culture reactor was operated at a pH of 7 and with a 25 minute hydraulic detention time . High recirculation rates provided completely mixed conditions . The objective was to screen for the reduction of each contaminant . The tests were short-term, without allowing time for the reactor to adapt to the contaminants . Nitrate and oxygen were reduced by over 99 percent for all tests . Removals for the contaminants ranged from a minimum of 29% for chlorate to over 95% for bromate . Results show that the tested contaminants can be removed as secondary substrates in an MBfR, and that the MBfR may be suitable for treating these and other oxidized contaminants in drinking water. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 2004 Jul, 54(7), 855 - 61 Occurrence and abatement of volatile sulfur compounds during biogas production; Andersson FA et al.; Volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in biogas originating from a biogas production plant and from a municipal sewage water treatment plant were identified . Samples were taken at various stages of the biogas-producing process, including upgrading the gas to vehicle-fuel quality . Solid-phase microextraction was used for preconcentration of the VSCs, which were subsequently analyzed using gas chromatography in combination with mass spectrometry . Other volatile organic compounds present also were identified . The most commonly occurring VSCs in the biogas were hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide, and hydrogen sulfide was not always the most abundant sulfur (S) compound . Besides VSCs, oxygenated organic compounds were commonly present (e.g., ketones, alcohols, and esters) . The effect of adding iron chloride to the biogas reactor on the occurrence of VSCs also was investigated . It was found that additions of 500-g/m3 substrate gave an optimal removal of VSCs . Also, the use of a prefermentation step could reduce the amount of VSCs formed in the biogas process . Moreover, in the carbon dioxide scrubber used for upgrading the gas, VSCs were removed efficiently, leaving traces (ppbv levels) . The scrubber also removed other organic compounds. Environ Sci Technol, 2004 Jul 15, 38(14), 3984 - 93 Formate ion decomposition in water under UV irradiation at 253.7 nm; Talu GF et al.; Formate ion (HCO2-) occurs in natural waters as a result of photooxidation of humic substances . Under UV irradiation, as applied in water purification (253.7 nm), formate ion decomposed following split-rate pseudo-zero-order kinetics (k1 and k2 are initial and final rate constants, respectively) . In the presence of dissolved oxygen (DO), it was found that (a) k1 < k2, (b) k1 and k2 increased with initial formate ion concentration ({HCO2-}0 = (1.73-38.3) x 10(-5) mol L(-1)) and absorbed UV intensity (Ia = (1.38-3.99) x 10(-6) mol quanta L(-1) s(-1)), and (c) k1 and k2 were relatively insensitive to initial pH (pHo = 5.41-8.97) in buffer-free solutions . Both rate constants decreased with increasing carbonate alkalinity ((0-1.0) x 10(-3) mol L(-1)) and k1 was virtually unchanged in phosphate buffer at pH0 between 5.25 and 9.92 . Carbonate buffer lowered the rate of formate ion decay, possibly due to scavenging of OH* radicals . Initial rate constant k1 slightly increased with temperature (15-35 degrees C), while k2 remained unchanged . The reaction pH increased rapidly during irradiation of buffer-free NaHCO2 solution to approach an equilibrium level as {HCO2-} reached the method detection level (MDL) . The pH profile of buffer-free formate ion decay was estimated using closed-system equilibrium analysis . DO utilization during UV irradiation was 0.5 mol of O2/mol of HCO2-, while nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPOC) measurements on kinetic samples closely followed the HCO2- profile, thus strongly suggesting the transformation of HCO2- -C to CO2 in the presence of DO . In DO-free water, k1 > k2 was observed . Furthermore, k(1,DO FREE) > k(1,DO) (k(1,DO) = k1) and k(2,DO FREE) < k(2,DO) (k(2,DO) = k2) . The effect of dual acid solutions on HCO2- decay was examined in a mixture of NaHCO2 and sodium oxalate (Na2C2O4) . HCO2- decomposed readily until {HCO2-} approximately equal to MDL but at a lower rate than in buffer-free HCO2- solutions, while C2O4(2-) remained virtually unchanged . C2O4(2-) decay commenced following near complete conversion of HCO2-. Environ Sci Technol, 2004 Jul 1, 38(13), 3737 - 45 Modeling of an annular photocatalytic reactor for water purification: oxidation of pesticides; Puma GL et al.; Photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) over titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a "green" sustainable process for the treatment and purification of water and wastewater . However, the application of PCO for wastewater treatment on an industrial scale is currently hindered by a lack of simple mathematical models that can be readily applied to reactor design . Current models are either too simplistic or too rigorous to be useful in photocatalytic reactor design, scale-up, and optimization . In this paper a simple mathematical model is presented for slurry, annular, photocatalytic reactors that still retains the essential elements of a rigorous approach while providing simple solutions . The model extends the applicability of the thin-film model of photocatalytic reactors previously presented to include the case of geometrically thick photoreactors (i.e., those reactors in which the thickness of the annular zone is significant as compared to the outer radius of the reactor) . The model uses a novel six-flux absorption-scattering model to represent the radiation field in the reaction space, which assumes that scattered photons follow the route of the six directions of the Cartesian coordinates . The model was successfully validated with experimental results from the photocatalytic oxidation of the pesticide isoproturon in an experimental reactor . The mathematical model presented may be used as a tool for the design, scale-up, and optimization of annular photocatalytic reactors for water treatment and purification. Bioresour Technol, 2004 Dec, 95(3), 269 - 79 Case study: design, operation, maintenance and water quality management of sustainable storm water ponds for roof runoff; Scholz M; The purpose of this case study was to optimise design, operation and maintenance guidelines, and to assess the water treatment potential of a storm water pond system after 15 months of operation . The system was based on a combined silt trap, attenuation pond and vegetated infiltration basin . This combination was used as the basis for construction of a roof water runoff system from a single domestic property . United Kingdom Building Research Establishment and Construction Industry Research and Information Association, and German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste design guidelines were tested . These design guidelines failed because they did not consider local conditions . The infiltration function for the infiltration basin was logarithmic . Algal control techniques were successfully applied, and treatment of rainwater runoff from roofs was found to be largely unnecessary for recycling (e.g., watering plants) . However, seasonal and diurnal variations of biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen and pH were recorded. Environ Manage, 2004 Feb, 33(2), 186 - 95 Current and future strategies for water and wastewater management of Istanbul City; Yuksel E et al.; Istanbul has experienced rapid increases in population to more than 12 million people, which has created infrastructure problems of water supply and wastewater treatment and disposal . In this article, the achievements and approaches of the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (ISKI) to solve the water shortage problem and to improve services are summarized . Istanbul had a very severe water shortage problem in 1994 because of ignorance of the implementation of the needed projects . After reviewing the reasons and causes of the problem, new priority criteria adopted after 1994 are given . Following the implementation of the projects determined according to the aforementioned criteria, water supplied has exceeded the water demand . The added capacity is equal to one to three times of the capacity built up to 1994 for water treatment, service reservoirs, pumping stations, transmission lines, and the water distribution network; water quality has been improved the meet local and international potable water standards . Unaccounted for water has been reduced from 60% to 27% . The percentage of treated wastewater has been increased from 10% to 90% in 8 years, resulting in drastic improvements and rehabilitation of the Golden Horn and coastal water quality . Through improved customer services, complaints were reduced from 33% in 1994 to 0.3% . Some of the main criteria and the approaches behind this success are summarized. Avian Dis, 2004 Apr-Jun, 48(2), 324 - 31 The effects of water supplementation with vitamin E and sodium salicylate (Uni-Sol) on the resistance of turkeys to Escherichia coli respiratory infection; Huff GR et al.; The objective of this study was to determine the prophylactic efficacy of two commercial products, soluble vitamin E and soluble sodium salicylate (Uni-Sol), in an Escherichia coli respiratory challenge . The drinking water of male turkey poults was nonsupplemented or supplemented with either vitamin E or Uni-Sol or a combination of both at dosages recommended by the manufacturer . There were 110 birds in each of the four treatments, housed in four floor pens per treatment . At 5 wk of age, birds in half of the pens were challenged with an air sac inoculation of approximately 50 colony-forming units of E . coli . Water treatment commenced 5 days before challenge and continued for 2 wk after challenge, when birds were necropsied . All water treatments prevented the decrease in body weight due to E . coli challenge; however, either vitamin E or Uni-Sol alone, but not the combination of the two, decreased body weight in nonchallenged controls . Either vitamin E or Uni-Sol treatment alone, but not the combination of the two, significantly decreased mortality and air sacculitis scores of challenged birds, and all treatments decreased the isolation rates of E . coli from the liver . All treatments protected liver, spleen, and bursa weights (relative to body weight) from the effects of E . coli challenge, and Uni-Sol alone or vitamin E with Uni-Sol protected relative heart weights from the effect of challenge . Uni-Sol treatment alone increased the main effect mean total leukocyte counts and the number and percent of lymphocytes . Uni-Sol in combination with vitamin E increased the number of lymphocytes of challenged birds . Uni-Sol alone decreased the main effect mean heterophil/lymphocyte ratio (H/L) ratio, whereas vitamin E alone increased the H/L ratio of challenged birds . These results indicate that treatment of turkey poults with vitamin E or Uni-Sol prior to and during the stressful events that can lead to colisepticema may decrease disease incidence and mortality. Environ Pollut, 2004 Nov, 132(1), 85 - 93 Growth of Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin ex . Steudel in mine water treatment wetlands: effects of metal and nutrient uptake; Batty LC et al.; The abandoned mine of Shilbottle Colliery, Northumberland, UK is an example of acidic spoil heap discharge that contains elevated levels of many metals . Aerobic wetlands planted with the common reed, Phragmites australis, were constructed at the site to treat surface runoff from the spoil heap . The presence of a perched water table within the spoil heap resulted in the lower wetlands receiving acidic metal contaminated water from within the spoil heap while the upper wetland receives alkaline, uncontaminated surface runoff from the revegetated spoil . This unique situation enabled the comparison of metal uptake and growth of plants used in treatment schemes in two cognate wetlands . Results indicated a significant difference in plant growth between the two wetlands in terms of shoot height and seed production . Analyses of metal and nutrient concentrations within plant tissues provided the basis for three hypotheses to explain these differences: (i) the toxic effects of high levels of metals in shoot tissues, (ii) the inhibition of Ca (an essential nutrient) uptake by the presence of metals and H+ ions, and (iii) low concentrations of bioavailable nitrogen sources resulting in nitrogen deficiency . This has important implications for the engineering of constructed wetlands in terms of the potential success of plant establishment and vegetation development. Parasitol Today, 1995 Nov, 11(11), 434 - 6 Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis; Martins CA et al.; The tiny, iodine- and chlorine-resistant protozoan oocysts of Cryptospondium parvum, long recognized by veterinarians, have become increasingly noted as a cause of watery diarrhea in developed and developing countries throughout the world . For immunocompromised patients, particularly those with AIDS, this diarrhea can be severe and life-threatening . Clovis Martins and Richard Guerrant here discuss the increasing recognition of this important pathogen in immunocompetent patients as well, and outline new challenges to improved water treatment, immunologic and antiparasite chemotherapy. Parasitol Today, 1997 Sep, 13(9), 348 - 51 Zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium parvum: Implications for water-borne cryptosporidiosis; Graczyk TK et al.; The emergence of Cryptosporidium parvum-associated cryptosporidiosis as a worldwide zoonosis has stimulated interest in the modes of pathogen transmission . Here, Thaddeus Graczyk, Ronald Fayer and Michael Cranfield discuss the complex epidemiology of C . parvum, emphasizing the crosstransmission potential of the pathogen, mechanical vectors involved in water-borne transmission of the oocysts, and factors contributing to contamination of pristine waters with Cryptosporidium . They also outline the public health importance of proper interpretation of positive detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts at water-treatment facilities and identify means by which watersheds can be protected from Cryptosporidium contamination. J Environ Sci (China), 2004, 16(3), 482 - 6 A novel method to synthesize polyaluminum chloride with a membrane reactor; He F et al.; Al13 or Alb is usually regarded as the most efficient species of polyaluminum chloride (PAC), the performance flocculant for water treatment . This paper was intended to report a new method to synthesize PAC with high content Alb, by using the membrane reactor . NaOH solutions were managed to permeate slowly through the micropores of ultrafiltration membrane into AICl3 solutions under the suitable transmembrane pressure(TMP) . Meanwhile NaOH drops size was limited to nano-scale, resulting in dramatical reduction of the characteristic diffusion time and great increment of contact interface between the strong base and Al ions in solution to favor the formation of Al(OH)4-, the precursor of Al13, so few precipitates and much Alb are produced . When the initial concentration of AlCl3/NaOH is 0.40/2.0 (mol/L), MWCO = 10000, TMP = 0.0085 MPa, T = 305 K and B (molar ratio of OH-/Al3+) = 2.25, the quantity of Alb attains about 80% . The results of 27Al-NMR determination showed that the Al13 content is equal to Alb content . And our PAC product has shown better flocculation effects than the commercial product. Sci Total Environ, 2004 Aug 15, 329(1-3), 99 - 113 Persistence of pharmaceutical compounds and other organic wastewater contaminants in a conventional drinking-water-treatment plant; Stackelberg PE et al.; In a study conducted by the US Geological Survey and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 24 water samples were collected at selected locations within a drinking-water-treatment (DWT) facility and from the two streams that serve the facility to evaluate the potential for wastewater-related organic contaminants to survive a conventional treatment process and persist in potable-water supplies . Stream-water samples as well as samples of raw, settled, filtered, and finished water were collected during low-flow conditions, when the discharge of effluent from upstream municipal sewage-treatment plants accounted for 37-67% of flow in stream 1 and 10-20% of flow in stream 2 . Each sample was analyzed for 106 organic wastewater-related contaminants (OWCs) that represent a diverse group of extensively used chemicals . Forty OWCs were detected in one or more samples of stream water or raw-water supplies in the treatment plant; 34 were detected in more than 10% of these samples . Several of these compounds also were frequently detected in samples of finished water; these compounds include selected prescription and non-prescription drugs and their metabolites, fragrance compounds, flame retardants and plasticizers, cosmetic compounds, and a solvent . The detection of these compounds suggests that they resist removal through conventional water-treatment processes . Other compounds that also were frequently detected in samples of stream water and raw-water supplies were not detected in samples of finished water; these include selected prescription and non-prescription drugs and their metabolites, disinfectants, detergent metabolites, and plant and animal steroids . The non-detection of these compounds indicates that their concentrations are reduced to levels less than analytical detection limits or that they are transformed to degradates through conventional DWT processes . Concentrations of OWCs detected in finished water generally were low and did not exceed Federal drinking-water standards or lifetime health advisories, although such standards or advisories have not been established for most of these compounds . Also, at least 11 and as many as 17 OWCs were detected in samples of finished water . Drinking-water criteria currently are based on the toxicity of individual compounds and not combinations of compounds . Little is known about potential human-health effects associated with chronic exposure to trace levels of multiple OWCs through routes such as drinking water . The occurrence in drinking-water supplies of many of the OWCs analyzed for during this study is unregulated and most of these compounds have not been routinely monitored for in the Nation's source- or potable-water supplies . This study provides the first documentation that many of these compounds can survive conventional water-treatment processes and occur in potable-water supplies . It thereby provides information that can be used in setting research and regulatory priorities and in designing future monitoring programs . The results of this study also indicate that improvements in water-treatment processes may benefit from consideration of the response of OWCs and other trace organic contaminants to specific physical and chemical treatments. Environ Sci Technol, 2004 Jun 15, 38(12), 3360 - 9 Depolymerization of chromophoric natural organic matter; Thomson J et al.; Although the importance of natural organic matter (NOM) in the environment and in drinking water treatment is well-known, its structure is still ill-defined . The fragmentation patterns of NOM treated by irradiation (various wavelengths--185-400 nm), hydroxyl radicals, chlorine, ozone, and breakdown by a white rot fungus were studied to investigate the structure of chromophoric NOM molecules . Size exclusion chromatography was used to monitor the size distributions of NOM in two natural water waters and two NOM isolates . Three distinct fragmentation patterns were observed: ozone attack appeared to be nonsize specific, UV (> or = 254 nm) irradiation preferentially removed higher molecular weight chromophores, while processes involving hydroxyl radical showed intermediate size specificity . For the samples studied, the UV (> or = 254 nm) irradiation-induced fragmentation of NOM followed the patterns suggested by a simple trimer depolymerization model, supporting the viewpoint that NOM has repeating structural units joined by photolabile chemical bonds . The largest molecules reacted most rapidly, progressively fragmenting into slower reacting smaller molecules, which initially accumulated before breaking down to become nonchromophoric . This dependency of rate on molecular size appears to follow from the law of photochemistry which states the rate of reaction is proportional to the rate of light absorption: larger chromophores had higher molar absorptivities, absorbed more photons, and hence reacted faster than smaller chromophores. Med Confl Surviv, 2004 Apr-Jun, 20(2), 109 - 19 'Iraq Water Treatment Vulnerabilities': a challenge to public health ethics; MacQueen G et al.; A formerly classified US document, 'Iraq Water Treatment Vulnerabilities,' provides evidence that ill health was knowingly induced in the population of Iraq through the ruination of that country's water purification system . We believe that the uncovering of this document should stimulate the public health community to clarify principles of public health ethics and to formulate statements giving voice to these principles . We propose here two statements, one dealing with the broad issue of public health ethics and international relations, and one dealing specifically with public health ethics and water purification. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2004 Jul, 39(7), 1645 - 54 Reject water: treating of process water in large wastewater treatment plants in Germany--a case study; Meyer SS et al.; The increase of the hydraulic loading of a municipal wastewater treatment plant caused by the sludge dewatering process is of minor importance . However, the rejected nitrogen load accounts for up to 25% of the nitrogen load in the raw sewage . As a result, the process water significantly influences the stage volume of the biological treatment steps . Rejection management can prevent critical nitrogen concentrations in the effluent of the plant . In some cases, the treating capacity must be increased . Separate treatment of the process water can be an alternative to the enlargement of the main wastewater treatment stages . This article describes the compositions of the process waters from different sludge treatment steps, the influence on the main wastewater treatment steps, possible strategies to handle the rejection problem, and processes for separate treatment of the sludge liquor . Some results of a German case study on large wastewater treatment plants illustrate the situation concerning separate process water treatment in Germany . These results suggest that side stream treatment can be a practical alternative to a classic increase in the length of the main stream stages . Moreover, they prove that many different processes are useful for the separate treatment of sludge liquor. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(9), 289 - 95 Treatment of taste and odor material by oxidation and adsorption; Jung SW et al.; Massive blooms of blue-green algae in reservoirs produce the musty-earthy taste and odor, which are caused by compounds such as 2-MIB and geosmin . 2-MIB and geosmin are rarely removed by conventional water treatment . Their presence in the drinking water, even at low levels (ng/L), can be detected and it creates consumer complaints . So those concentrations have to be controlled as low as possible in the drinking water . The removals by oxidation (O3, Cl2, ClO2) and adsorption (PAC, filter/adsorber) were studied at laboratory and pilot plant (50 m3/d) to select suitable 2-MIB and geosmin treatment processes . The following conclusions were derived from the study . Both of the threshold odor levels for 2-MIB and geosmin appeared to be 30 ng/L as a consequence of a lab test . For any given PAC dosage in a jar-test, removal efficiencies of 2-MIB and geosmin were increased in proportion to PAC dosage and were independent of their initial concentration in raw water for the tested PAC dosages . In comparison of geosmin with 2-MIB, the adsorption efficiency of geosmin by PAC was superior to that of 2-MIB . The required PAC dosages to control below the threshold odor level were 30 mg/L for geosmin and 50 mg/L for 2-MIB at 100 ng/L of initial concentration . Removal efficiencies of odor materials by Cl2, ClO2, and O3 were very weak under the limited dosage (1.5 mg/L), however increased ozone dosage (3.8 mg O3/L) showed high removal efficiency (84.8% for 2-MIB) at contact time 6.4 minutes . According to the initial concentrations of 2-MIB and geosmin, their removal efficiencies by filter/adsorber differed from 25.7% to 88.4% . For all those, however, remaining concentrations of target materials in finished waters were maintained below 30 ng/L . The longer run-time given for the filter/adsorber, the higher the effluent concentration generated . So it is necessary that the run-time of the filter/adsorber be decreased, when 2-MIB or geosmin occurs in raw water. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(9), 267 - 72 Determination of odour threshold concentrations and dose-response relations in water of several minor disinfection by-products: aldehydes and alkyl nitriles; Fabrellas C et al.; The odour threshold concentrations (OTCs) levels of aldehydes and alkyl nitriles, two groups of disinfection by-products of water treatment, have been studied in order to know if some of these compounds can be associated with off-flavour events . For aldehydes, as a result of the values obtained, which are in the low microg/L range, it is possible that they are related to these events . This is not the case for the other group, alkyl nitriles, with very high OTC values. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(9), 153 - 9 Effects of chlorine and chloramines on earthy and musty odors in drinking water; Oestman E et al.; Water treatment plants in the US may operate under the assumption that chlorine masks earthy and musty odors from geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) in drinking water . To test this hypothesis, we evaluated the effects of chlorine and chloramines on geosmin and MIB by two sensory analysis approaches--a statistical Pairwise Comparison Test, and Flavor Profile Analysis (FPA) . All Pairwise Ranking test statistics were significant (p<0.05); we conclude that panelists can differentiate minor differences in geosmin and MIB concentrations in a Pairwise Comparison Test even in the presence of chlorine . FPA appeared to be more challenging in discerning subtle differences in concentrations of geosmin or MIB than did the Pairwise Comparison Test, and the presence of chlorine (0.5-20 mg/L) and chloramines (3-24 mg/L) confused the panelists (i.e showed a larger error in the intensity of response reported by the panel), but did not necessarily mask geosmin or MIB. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(9), 61 - 7 The attribute rating test for sensory analysis; Dietrich AM et al.; This new sensory method evaluates the intensity of an odorant by using a modified "paired-comparison" format . It can be applied to any situation for which the odor-causing agent is known and a purified standard is available . The attribute rating test requires that a standard solution of the odorant be prepared at a concentration that is both readily recognized by most individuals and likely to evoke customer complaints . Within an hour individuals can be trained to compare the odor type and intensity of the standard to water samples, then rate the odor in the sample as "not detected," "less than the standard," "equal to standard," or "greater than the standard." The attribute rating test was successfully used by a full-scale water treatment facility to monitor the intensity of geosmin in the source water and to determine the effectiveness of powdered activated carbon for controlling its earthy-odor in treated water. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(9), 55 - 60 Rating method for evaluating distribution-system odors compared with a control; Dietrich AM et al.; A new sensory method was developed and tested at a full-scale water treatment plant . The method evaluates changes in aesthetic water quality during transit in the distribution system . A paired comparison format is used to determine if the odor of a distribution-system sample is different from that of a control sample . The control sample represents the "ideal" water, such as treated water leaving the plant . The method can rapidly determine whether or not a problem exists in the distribution system, and, if one does exist, it allows for characterization of the problem . Over a three-month period a 4-member odor panel evaluated 118 distribution samples by this new procedure . Among the 118 samples tested, 39 samples yielded a consensus among the analysts as to the odor characteristics of the sample; 35 were rated "not different from the control" (about 90%), and only 4 were rated "different from control" (about 10%) . The 79 samples for which no consensus was generated had only slight rating differences between analysts and for odor intensity . No taste-and-odor problems were reported by consumers during the time period for this study and the method indicated that no major odor problems existed in the distribution system. J Environ Qual, 2004 May-Jun, 33(3), 902 - 10 Assessment of the use of industrial by-products to remediate a copper- and arsenic-contaminated soil; Lombi E et al.; Two water treatment sludges (WTS-A, WTS-B), two red muds (RM), and red gypsum (RG), all rich in iron oxy-hydroxides, were added to a soil highly polluted with As and Cu at 2% (w/w) to reduce metal bioavailability . Because the amendments increased soil pH to approximately 6, a lime treatment to the same pH and an unamended treatment were included for comparison . All the amendments had significant positive effects on the soil microbial biomass and growth of ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam . cv . Avance), but only WTS-A improved lettuce (Lactuca sativa L . cv . Tom Thumb) growth . The mineralization of added ammonium nitrogen was not significantly affected by the treatments, while a physiologically based extraction test (PBET) showed that bioaccessibility of As was low (< 5%) and decreased only in the WTS-A treatment . Concentrations of As in soil pore water and extractable As only decreased in the WTS and RG treatments . In contrast, Cu concentrations in soil pore water and extractable Cu decreased in all treatments, by more than 84% in the WTS, RM, and RG treatments . Non-isotopically exchangeable As and Cu were present in colloids in the soil pore water . Untreated soil had < 4% isotopically exchangeable As and this decreased by approximately 50%, with WTS, RM, and RG . The labile Cu pool represented a large proportion (34%) of the total Cu pool, and the isotopically exchangeable and soluble Cu were strongly correlated with soil pH . Acidification of the treated soils showed that the labile As and Cu both increased in the treated soils compared with untreated soils . The significance of the treatment effects on soil fertility and potential off-site transport of As and Cu to ground water are discussed. Water Res, 2004 Jul, 38(12), 2934 - 8 Measurement of protein-like fluorescence in river and waste water using a handheld spectrophotometer; Baker A et al.; Protein-like fluorescence intensity in rivers increases with increasing anthropogenic DOM inputs from sewerage and farm wastes . Here, a portable luminescence spectrophotometer was used to investigate if this technology could be used to provide both field scientists with a rapid pollution monitoring tool and process control engineers with a portable waste water monitoring device, through the measurement of river and waste water tryptophan-like fluorescence from a range of rivers in NE England and from effluents from within two waste water treatment plants . The portable spectrophotometer determined that waste waters and sewerage effluents had the highest tryptophan-like fluorescence intensity, urban streams had an intermediate tryptophan-like fluorescence intensity, and the upstream river samples of good water quality the lowest tryptophan-like fluorescence intensity . Replicate samples demonstrated that fluorescence intensity is reproducible to +/- 20% for low fluorescence, 'clean' river water samples and +/- 5% for urban water and waste waters . Correlations between fluorescence measured by the portable spectrophotometer with a conventional bench machine were 0.91; (Spearman's rho, n = 143), demonstrating that the portable spectrophotometer does correlate with tryptophan-like fluorescence intensity measured using the bench spectrophotometer. Water Res, 2004 Jul, 38(12), 2898 - 906 UV disinfection of indigenous aerobic spores: implications for UV reactor validation in unfiltered waters; Mamane-Gravetz H et al.; Conventional validation testing of UV reactors use cultured microorganisms spiked into test water flowing through a reactor . These tests are limited by the microbe titer it is possible to grow, thus limiting the size of the reactor it is possible to validate . The goal of this study was to examine the UV inactivation of indigenous aerobic spores naturally occurring in raw/unfiltered water supplies and to assess their use as an alternative indicator for validation testing of UV reactor performance, specifically for unfiltered water supplies planning large UV reactors . These spores were found in all raw waters tested in concentrations ranging between 20 and 12,000 CFU/100 mL and were very resistant to UV irradiation compared to a range of different microbes in the literature (i.e . adenovirus, MS-2 coliphage, and Cryptosporidium parvum) . The inactivation of indigenous natural aerobic spores followed first-order kinetics with an inactivation coefficient ranging between 0.013 and 0.022 cm2/mJ with a high correlation coefficient . It was determined that naturally occurring aerobic spores, well characterized with respect to UV 253.7 nm inactivation, can be a useful tool when validating plant performance, and might also be used as a regular monitor of UV fluence and performance in a water treatment plant. J Clin Dent, 2004, 15(1), 17 - 21 Efficacy of A-dec's ICX dental unit waterline treatment solution in the prevention and treatment of microbial contamination in dental units; Meiller TF et al.; OBJECTIVE: Even though some chemical agents can disinfect biofilms in dental unit waterlines, there remains concern that all remnants of the biofilm matrix are not eliminated . Even with periodic treatments, the bacterial populations in dental unit waterlines recur rapidly . In addition, with some previously tested products, patient safety, as well as toxic, caustic and corrosive residual chemicals are also a concern . This study evaluated ICX, A-dec's new water treatment solution, in a series of experiments for prevention, microbial spectrum of activity, minimum inhibitory time determination, and treatment of established biofilms . METHODOLOGY: New dental unit waterline tubing was treated continuously during simulated patient care over 28 days with municipal water . It was then treated with ICX . Effluents from lines with established biofilms (averaging > 10(4) CFU/ml at day 0) were treated to assess levels of CFU counts within 21 days of exposure to ICX . RESULTS: Tubing treated with ICX did not develop a detectable biofilm using ruthenium red staining, and microbes in effluents remained undetectable . CONCLUSION: ICX is effective in maintaining the effluent within the American Dental Association's and the Centers for Disease Control's recommendation for < 500 CFU/ml . In addition, considering the preliminary finding that ICX reduces microbial contamination of effluents from established biofilm lines, it may be useful in long-term treatment alone or when coupled with a shock treatment to assist in biofilm destruction. Anal Bioanal Chem, 2004 Mar, 378(6), 1579 - 86 Characterization of humic substances: implications for trihalomethane formation; Uyguner CS et al.; Humic substances are precursors of carcinogenic trihalomethanes (THMs) formed during disinfection by chlorination in water treatment processes . In an effort to understand the relationship between trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) and physicochemical properties of humic substances, UV-visible absorbance, fluorescence in emission and synchronous scan modes, and NMR spectra were measured for several aquatic fulvic and humic acids . For comparison, a soil fulvic acid was also examined using these methods . The feasibility of the gradient modified spin-echo (GOSE) NMR experiment to selectively measure singlet resonances arising from isolated protons was examined . In addition, diffusion coefficients were measured for DMSO solutions of the fulvic acids using BPPLED and GOSE-edited pulse sequences . Although none of the methods tested produced results that correlated with THMFP, the GOSE intensities determined for different regions of the NMR spectra did reflect the relative abundance of different types of functional groups produced by lignin oxidation . In addition, the GOSE-edited diffusion results suggest that the isolated protons, those most reactive to chlorination, are more likely contained in the larger molecular weight fractions of fulvic acids. C R Biol, 2004 Apr, 327(4), 389 - 98 Early water-deficit effects on seminal roots morphology in barley; Sahnoune M et al.; In order to study seminal roots morphology in barley grown under different water treatments, experiments were carried out under glasshouse-controlled conditions . Eight genotypes were cultivated under four water treatments (100, 75, 50 and 25% of field capacity) . Seminal root length and root-to-shoot dry matters' ratio were measured . Root volume was assessed at three soil depths . Results showed broad genotypic differences for all traits . The effect of low and moderate water deficit was slight . In contrast, the impact of severe water treatment was strongly marked on all traits . The impact of water deficit intensity on root traits at different soil depths is discussed. Environ Sci Technol, 2004 May 15, 38(10), 2919 - 27 Preservation of As(III) and As(V) in drinking water supply samples from across the United States using EDTA and acetic acid as a means of minimizing iron-arsenic coprecipitation; Gallagher PA et al.; Seven different treatment/storage conditions were investigated for the preservation of the native As(III)/As(V) found in 10 drinking water supplies from across the United States . These 10 waters were chosen because they have different As(III)/As(V) distributions; six of these waters contained enough iron to produce an iron precipitate during shipment . The waters were treated and stored under specific conditions and analyzed periodically over a span of approximately 75 days . Linear least squares (LLS) was used to estimate the change in As(III) and As(V) over the study period . Point estimates for the first and last analyses days and 95% confidence bounds were calculated from the LLS . The difference in the point estimates for the first and last day were then evaluated with respect to drinking water treatment decision making . Three primary treatments were evaluated: EDTA/AcOH-treatment and AcOH treatment as well as no treatment . The effect of temperature was explored for all treatments, while the effect of aeration was evaluated for only the EDTA/AcOH treated samples . The nontreated samples experienced a 0-40% reduction in the native arsenic concentration due to the formation of Fe/As precipitates . The Fe/As precipitates were resolubilized and shown to contain elevated concentrations of As(V) relative to the native distribution . Once this Fe/As precipitate was removed from solution using a 0.45 and 0.2 microm filter, the resulting arsenic concentration (As(III) + As(V)) was relatively constant (the largest LLS slope was -1.4 x 10(-2) (ng As g water(-1)) day(-1)) . The AcOH treatment eliminated the formation of the Fe/As precipitate observed in the nontreated samples . However, two of the AcOH water samples produced analytically significant changes in the As(III) concentration . The LLS slopes for these two waters were -5.7 x 10(-2) (ng As(III) g water(-1)) day(-1) and -1.0 x 10(-1) (ng As(III) g water(-1)) day(-1) . This corresponds to a -4.3 ng/g and a -7.8 ng/g change in the As(III) concentration over the study period, which is a 10% shift in the native distribution . The third and final treatment was EDTA/AcOH . This treatment eliminated the Fe/As precipitate that formed in the nontreated sample . The LLS slopes were less than -7.5 x 10(-3) (ng As(III) g water(-1)) day(-1) for the above-mentioned waters, corresponding to a 0.6 ng/g change over the study period . One of the EDTA/AcOH treated waters did indicate that using the 5 degrees C storage temperature minimized the rate of conversion relative to 20 degrees C storage. Int J Artif Organs, 2004 May, 27(5), 380 - 7 Prolonged daily intermittent renal replacement therapy in ICU patients by ICU nurses and ICU physicians; Naka T et al.; OBJECTIVES: Prolonged daily intermittent renal replacement therapy (PDIRRT) has been proposed as a new form of treatment for severe acute renal failure (ARF) . However, this treatment has so far implied a) full dependence on nephrological input, b) lack of any convective clearance and c) limited purification of dialysate water . The aim of this study was to establish the feasibility and safety of performing PDIRRT in the ICU with a) no nephrological input, b) the addition of some convective clearance with on-line fluid replacement and c) a new advanced water purification system . DESIGN: Prospective observational study . PATIENTS: Fourteen patients treated with PDIRRT . SETTING: ICU of tertiary institution . INTERVENTIONS: Treatment of patients with severe ARF and critical illness with PDIRRT . Prescription of treatment by ICU physicians . Conduct of treatment by ICU nurses . Use of combined convective and diffusive therapy with on-line generation of fluid replacement, application of a double-filtration water purification system . MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We prospectively collected demographic, biochemical, hemodynamic and clinical data in 14 patients, who received 30 PDIRRT treatments for a cumulative treatment time of 205.4 hours . The mean age was 57.9 +/- 16.0 . Eight patients were male and 6 female . Their mean APACHE II score was 24.6 +/- 5.9 and their SAPS II score was 41.7 +/- 18.8 . PDIRRT was used after at least 24 hours of initial stabilization with continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) . Blood flow was kept at 100 ml/min dialysate flow at 200 ml/min and convective clearance varied from 21 ml/min to 33 ml/min . All patients were either anuric or oliguric (UO < 400 ml/day) . Ten patients were on mechanical ventilation and 11 patients on vasopressor support . Mean treatment session time was 6.9 +/- 1.8 hours . The mean pre-PDIRRT urea was 19.2 +/- 6.9 mmol/L and the creatinine was 274 +/- 116 micromol/L . The mean pre-PDIRRT lactate was 2.95 +/- 2.24 mmol/L . Following treatment, all had significantly decreased to 13.2 +/- 6.3 mmol/L, 215 +/- 95 micromol/L and 2.25 +/- 1.61 mmol/L, respectively (p=<0.0001, <0.0001, <0.05) . Bicarbonate levels remained stable during treatment (23.0 +/- 3.8 mmol/L to 23.1 +/- 2.5 mmol/L) . Mean norepinephrine dose changed from 8.8 +/- 11.9 microg/min to 12.9 +/- 27.0 microg/min after treatment (NS) . There were no complications of therapy . Patient ICU survival was 71.4% . CONCLUSIONS: PDIRRT with combined diffusive and convective clearance is an efficacious form of renal replacement, which can be safely and effectively conducted by ICU nurses following prescription by ICU physicians without any nephrological involvement and with adequate double filtration water purification. Gene, 2004 Jun 23, 335, 141 - 9 Genomic structure and differential expression of two tandem-arranged GSTZ genes in rice; Tsuchiya T et al.; Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are scavenging enzymes that detoxify cellular xenobiotics and toxins by catalyzing the conjugation of these substrates with a tripeptide glutathione . GSTs are classified depending on gene organization and sequence similarity . The sequence analysis of genomic DNA for zeta class GST (GSTZ) locus in rice indicated that two homologous GSTZ genes lay in a tandem orientation with a short (0.4 kb) intergenic spacer . The upstream OsGSTZ1 and downstream OsGSTZ2 spanned 3.5 and 3.2 kb with nine coding exons, respectively . The transcript of OsGSTZ1 had a long 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) that was mostly encoded by a 10th noncoding exon, whereas OsGSTZ2 mRNA contained a long 5' UTR . Northern blot analysis showed that OsGSTZ1/2 messages were strongly expressed in leaf blades, while transcripts from roots were low level . Because OsGSTZ1/2 messages in leaf tissues were strongly induced only by water treatment, it was difficult to assay for the induction of OsGSTZ1/2 transcripts by various stress treatments . Thus, using rice culture cells, we analyzed the respective responses of OsGSTZ1 and OsGSTZ2 genes against various treatments by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) . The results showed that OsGSTZ1 was expressed at a level ca . 1000-fold higher than OsGSTZ2 in suspension cells without stress treatment . OsGSTZ1 was expressed constitutively under various stress conditions . In contrast, the expression of OsGSTZ2 gene was strongly enhanced to 30-fold by treatment with jasmonic acid . These observations suggested that the expression of OsGSTZ1 and OsGSTZ2 genes are differentially regulated in the culture cell of rice. J Toxicol Environ Health A, 2004 Apr 23-May 28, 67(8-10), 779 - 90 Bottom-up and top-down integration of human and ecological risk assessment; Suter GW 2nd; The World Health Organization has published a framework for integrating human health and ecological risk assessments, and many others have argued for greater integration of health and environmental concerns in assessments . However, those who argue for integration do not agree on the expected benefits . This article provides a conceptual organization of the rationale for integration . The bottom-up line of argument begins with the premise that the mechanisms of transport, fate, exposure, and effects of chemicals on humans and nonhuman organisms are largely common . Therefore, integrated assessment should be more efficient and should employ the highest quality of science . The top-down line of argument begins with the premise that humans are organisms that reside in ecosystems . Therefore, changes in the environment imply changes in human health and welfare . These include changes in the many services of nature that contribute to human health, such as air and water purification, sentinel functions, and provision of recreation and food supplies . They also include the direct health benefits that have been associated with exposure of humans to plants, animals, and natural ecosystems . Integration should proceed from both the top and bottom. Adv Drug Deliv Rev, 2004 Jun 23, 56(10), 1467 - 80 Potential applications of chitosan in veterinary medicine; Senel S et al.; Chitosan is a partially deacetylated polymer obtained from the alkaline deacetylation of chitin which is a glucose-based unbranched polysaccharide widely distributed in nature as the principal component of exoskeletons of crustaceans and insects as well as of cell walls of some bacteria and fungi . Chitosan exhibits a variety of physicochemical and biological properties resulting in numerous applications in fields such as waste and water treatment, agriculture, fabric and textiles, cosmetics, nutritional enhancement, and food processing . In addition to its lack of toxicity and allergenicity, and its biocompatibility, biodegradability and bioactivity make it a very attractive substance for diverse applications as a biomaterial in pharmaceutical and medical fields, where it has been used for systemic and local delivery of drugs and vaccines . It also has bioactive properties in its own right . This paper reviews current veterinary applications for chitosan including wound healing, bone regeneration, analgesic and antimicrobial effects . It also discusses the potential application of chitosan to drug and vaccine delivery in veterinary species . Given the restrictions imposed by financial and animal restraint considerations, especially in farming applications, the veterinary drug delivery areas most likely to benefit from chitosan are the delivery of chemotherapeutics such as antibiotics, antiparasitics, anaesthetics, painkillers and growth promotants to mucosal epithelium for absorption for local or systemic activity, and the delivery of immunomodulatory agents to the mucosal associated lymphoid tissue for induction or modulation of local immune responses . The properties of chitosan expected to enhance these functions are discussed, and the future research directions in this field are indicated. J Appl Microbiol, 2004, 97(1), 225 - 31 Effect of point-of-use disinfection, flocculation and combined flocculation-disinfection on drinking water quality in western Kenya; Crump JA et al.; AIMS: Point-of-use drinking water disinfection with sodium hypochlorite has been shown to improve water quality and reduce diarrhoeal disease . However, the chlorine demand of highly turbid water may render sodium hypochlorite less effective . METHODS AND RESULTS: We evaluated a novel combined flocculant-disinfectant point-of-use water treatment product and compared its effect on drinking water quality with existing technologies in western Kenya . In water from 30 sources, combined flocculant-disinfectant reduced Escherichia coli concentrations to <1 CFU100 ml(-1) for 29 (97%) and reduced turbidity to <5 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) for 26 (87%) . By contrast, water from 30 sources treated with sodium hypochlorite reduced E . coli concentrations to <1 CFU 100 ml(-1) for 25 (83%) and turbidity to <5 NTU for 5 (17%) . CONCLUSIONS: For source waters over a range of turbidities in western Kenya, combined flocculant-disinfectant product effectively reduces turbidity to <5 NTU and reduces E . coli concentrations to <1 CFU 100 ml(-1) . SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The novel flocculant-disinfectant product may be acceptable to consumers and may be effective in reducing diarrhoeal disease in settings where source water is highly turbid. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2004 Jun, 70(6), 3632 - 6 Comparison of total culturable virus assay and multiplex integrated cell culture-PCR for reliability of waterborne virus detection; Lee HK et al.; The total culturable virus assay (TCVA) and an integrated cell culture-PCR (ICC-PCR) were compared in parallel to evaluate their detection reliability . Source, finished, and tap water samples from three drinking water treatment plant systems were analyzed by TCVA, and every cell culture dish was subsequently examined by reverse transcription (RT) multiplex PCR using enterovirus- and adenovirus-specific primers . Twenty-seven of 180 (15%) inoculated dishes exhibited cytopathic effects (CPE) . Virus concentrations for source water ranged from 3.3 to 21.0 most probable numbers of infectious units (MPN) per 100 liters . No finished or tap water samples were positive . On the other hand, 38 (21%) of the dishes were positive in multiplex ICC-PCR . Virus concentrations ranged from 4.5 to 10.2 MPN/100 liters for source water and 0 to 0.9 MPN/100 liters for finished and tap water . In spite of its superior sensitivity, the ICC-PCR assay resulted in lower virus concentration values than the TCVA for two of the source water sites . Retest of the CPE-positive dishes using reovirus-specific RT-PCR revealed that 24 of the 27 (89%) dishes were also positive for reoviruses . These observations suggested that the detection reliability of ICC-PCR is restricted by the primer sets that are integrated in the reaction mixture . The observation of an uneven distribution of PCR-positive culture dishes in a given sample raises an additional caution that simple extrapolation of the ICC-PCR result from the analysis of a limited fraction of collected samples should be avoided to minimize possible over- and underestimation of the amount of virus. BMC Pharmacol . 2004 Jun 08;4(1):9. Hypoglycemic and anti-lipemic effects of the aqueous extract from Cissus sicyoides; Viana GS et al.; BACKGROUND: Cissus sicyoides (Vitaceae) is a medicinal plant popularly known in Brazil as "cipo-puca, anil-trepador, cortina, and insulina" . The plant is used in several diseases, including rheumatism, epilepsy, stroke and also in the treatment of diabetes . In the present work, we studied the hypoglycemic and anti-lipemic effects of the aqueous extract prepared from fresh leaves of the plant (AECS), in the model of alloxan-induced diabetes in rats . In addition, hepatic enzyme levels were also determined . RESULTS: Results showed that the daily treatment of diabetic rats with AECS for 7 days (100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly decreased blood glucose levels in 25 and 22% respectively, as compared to the same groups before AECS treatment . No significant changes were seen in control diabetic rats before (48 h after alloxan administration) and after distilled water treatment . While no changes were seen in total cholesterol levels, a significant decrease was observed in plasma triglyceride levels, in the alloxan-induced diabetic rats after AECS treatment with both doses, as compared to the same groups before treatment . Significant decreases in blood glucose (25%) and triglyceride levels (48%) were also observed in the alloxan-induced diabetic rats after 4 days treatment with AECS (200 mg/kg, p.o.) . Aspartate (AST) and alanine (ALT) aminotransferases levels, in diabetic controls and AECS-treated rats, were in the range of reference values presented by normal rats . CONCLUSIONS: The results justify the popular use of C . sicyoides, pointing out to the potential benefit of the plant aqueous extract (AECS) in alternative medicine, in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Leg Med (Tokyo), 2004 Mar, 6(1), 1 - 10 Prosecution after an outbreak of subacute aluminum intoxication in a hemodialysis center; Berend K et al.; Criminal prosecution of physicians for the death of patients has been extraordinarily rare, but there seems to be a rising trend . This case report describes the medical and judicial implications of criminal prosecution of two doctors at a hemodialysis clinic in the Netherlands Antilles that had to stand trial over the death of 10 dialysis patients . The patients died of subacute aluminum intoxication when aluminum leached from the cement lining of a newly installed water distribution pipe into the water supply of the dialysis center that did not make use of a water treatment system (WTS) . Data of the case history of the dialysis patients, the criminal prosecution, preliminary judicial inquiry, the defense arguments and verdicts are reviewed . The prosecutor first decided to dismiss the case, but after an appeal by the families, the Court of Appeal decided to pursue prosecution for gross negligence . It held that the dialysis center should have used a WTS and also held that the dialysis staff reacted insufficiently on extra alarms on the dialysis machines in the two days after the new water distribution pipe was put in use . From June 6, 1998 until January 1999 a preliminary judicial inquiry was performed in The Netherlands and on Curacao . After a cross-examination of 13 court-appointed experts by the prosecutor and the investigative judge, the prosecutor charged the two physicians of gross negligence manslaughter for not testing the composition of the water after the construction at the water distribution network . A prison sentence with probation of 6 months was demanded . The District Court disagreed on all issues with the prosecutor, but nevertheless held the medical director of Diatel guilty for performing hemodialysis without a WTS . In May 2000, the Court of Appeal held that it was not allowed to rule on the omission to install a WTS because this issue was not included in the charge and overturned the conviction . Medical personnel in charge of potentially dangerous procedures should be prepared for unexpected changes in the quality of their treatment . Because court-appointed experts might have an extraordinary role in the decision making process, guidelines should be prepared to ensure the trustworthiness of their testimony. Environ Technol, 2004 Mar, 25(3), 373 - 80 The use of waterworks sludge for the treatment of vegetable oil refinery industry wastewater; Basibuyuk M et al.; Water treatment works using coagulation/flocculation in the process stream will generate a waste sludge . This sludge is termed as ferric, alum, or lime sludge based on which coagulant was primarily used . The works in Adana, Turkey uses ferric chloride . The potential for using this sludge for the treatment of vegetable oil refinery industry wastewater by coagulation has been investigated . The sludge acted as a coagulant and excellent oil and grease, COD and TSS removal efficiencies were obtained . The optimum conditions were a pH of 6 and a sludge dose of 1100 mg SS l(-1) . The efficiency of sludge was also compared with alum and ferric chloride for the vegetable oil refinery wastewater . At doses of 1300-1900 mg SS l(-1), the sludge was as effective as ferric chloride and alum at removing oil and grease, COD, and TSS . In addition, various combinations of ferric chloride and waterworks sludge were also examined . Under the condition of 12.5 mg l(-1) fresh ferric chloride and 1000 mg SS l(-1) sludge dose, 99% oil and grease 99% TSS and 83% COD removal efficiencies were obtained. Environ Technol, 2004 Mar, 25(3), 283 - 91 Enhancement of the natural organic matter removal from drinking water by nanofiltration; Matilainen A et al.; Finnish surface waters are abundant in natural organic matter . Natural organic matter can be removed from drinking water in a water treatment process by coagulation and filtration . The standard treatment operations are not able to remove the smallest molar mass fraction of organic matter and the intermediate molar mass matter is only partly removed . The removal of residual natural organic matter from drinking water by nanofiltration was evalueted in this study . Three different nanofiltration membranes were compared in filtering six pre-treated surface waters . The total organic carbon content of the feed waters varied from 2.0 to 4.2 mg l(-1) . Other water quality parameters measured were conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, UV-absorbance, SUVA, E2/E3 value and molecular size distribution by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography . The natural organic matter removal efficiencies of the membranes were good and varied between 100% and 49%, and between 85% and 47% according to molecular size distribution and total organic carbon measurements, respectively . Removal of different molecular size fractions varied from 100% to 56%, 100% to 54% and 88% to 19%, regarding high molar mass, intermediate molar mass and low molar mass organic matter, respectively . The Desal-5 DL membrane produced the highest natural organic matter removals. Chemosphere, 2004 Jul, 56(3), 247 - 55 Nonylphenolic compounds in drinking and surface waters downstream of treated textile and pulp and paper effluents: a survey and preliminary assessment of their potential effects on public health and aquatic life; Berryman D et al.; Eleven drinking water treatment plants, located downstream of textile plants or pulp and paper mills, have been sampled monthly during a year for the analysis of 17 nonylphenol ethoxylates (NP1-17EO) and two nonylphenoxycarboxylic acids (NP1-2EC) . At all but one plant, results in the drinking water, for the sum of these 19 substances, range between below detection levels and 6.7 microg/l . Annual means are between 0.02 and 2.8 microg/l . At the other plant, the yearly average concentration is 10.4 microg/l and the monthly maximum is 43.3 microg/l . In the surface (pre-treatment) water, the annual mean concentrations of the 11 plants range between 0.14 and 17.8 microg/l and the recorded instantaneous maximum is 55.3 microg/l . According to Canadian health authorities, drinking water is a negligible route of human exposure to nonylphenolic compounds, even at the highest concentrations found in this study . After transformation of the data into nonylphenol equivalents, about 20% of the surface water samples exceed the Canadian 1 microg/l nonylphenol water quality guideline for the protection of aquatic life . Some results also exceed Quebec's 6 microg/l nonylphenol guideline . The efficiency of the plants in removing nonylphenolic compounds from drinking water is highly variable, ranging from 11% to 99%. Anal Sci, 2004 May, 20(5), 831 - 6 Determination of anion-exchange resin performance based on facile chloride-ion monitoring by FIA-spectrophotometry with applications to water treatment operation; Li YS et al.; Based on a flow-injection spectrophotometry, an automatic analytical method for determination of ppb-level chloride-ion has been established . By use of this method, a novel FIA method for the determination of SBAER performance has also been developed . In this paper, the effects of concentration, dosage, and flow rate of the regenerant on BEC of SBAER were first investigated dynamically by the FIA method . In addition, the flow rate of the sample water and the temperature of the ion exchange resin were also examined . The optimum conditions were obtained: the volume of the regenerant (sodium hydroxide) was 50 mL (0.15 g resin), and its concentration was 3% (w/v); the volumetric flow rates of the regenerant and the sample water were 0.5 ml/min (4.3 m/h) and 1.5 ml/min (13 m/h), respectively . The exchanging temperature was 25 +/- 5 degrees C . The method is characterized by the use of a micro resin-column, shorter testing cycle, easy operation, and high reproducibility . The proposed method is approximately 30 times more efficient than the manual method, and it can be used for the exchange performance comparison of various SBAER. Water Res, 2004 May, 38(10), 2614 - 8 Rapid enumeration of virus-like particles in drinking water samples using SYBR green I-staining; Rinta-Kanto JM et al.; We studied the suitability of SYBR green I-staining for determining total counts of virus-like particles and bacteria in drinking water . Low background fluorescence and lack of unspecific staining made drinking water samples an excellent matrix for SYBR green I-staining . Direct microscopic count method is a rapid and economical tool for assessing the total number of virus-like particles in aquatic samples, compared to culture-dependent or molecular biology methods . We applied this method to show the efficiency of a large-scale drinking water purification process in the removal of virus-like particles and bacteria from lake water. Int J Food Microbiol, 2004 May 1, 92(3), 317 - 25 Establishment of HPC(R2A) for regrowth control in non-chlorinated distribution systems; Uhl W et al.; Drinking water distributed without disinfection and without regrowth problems for many years may show bacterial regrowth when the residence time and/or temperature in the distribution system increases or when substrate and/or bacterial concentration in the treated water increases . An example of a regrowth event in a major German city is discussed . Regrowth of HPC bacteria occurred unexpectedly at the end of a very hot summer . No pathogenic or potentially pathogenic bacteria were identified . Increased residence times in the distribution system and temperatures up to 25 degrees C were identified as most probable causes and the regrowth event was successfully overcome by changing flow regimes and decreasing residence times . Standard plate counts of HPC bacteria using the spread plate technique on nutrient rich agar according to German Drinking Water Regulations (GDWR) had proven to be a very good indicator of hygienically safe drinking water and to demonstrate the effectiveness of water treatment . However, the method proved insensitive for early regrowth detection . Regrowth experiments in the lab and sampling of the distribution system during two summers showed that spread plate counts on nutrient-poor R2A agar after 7-day incubation yielded 100 to 200 times higher counts . Counts on R2A after 3-day incubation were three times less than after 7 days . As the precision of plate count methods is very poor for counts less than 10 cfu/plate, a method yielding higher counts is better suited to detect upcoming regrowth than a method yielding low counts . It is shown that for the identification of regrowth events HPC(R2A) gives a further margin of about 2 weeks for reaction before HPC(GDWR) . J Colloid Interface Sci, 2004 Jun 15, 274(2), 587 - 93 Effect of chlorine on adsorption/ultrafiltration treatment for removing natural organic matter in drinking water; Ha TW et al.; In drinking water treatment, prechlorination is often applied in order to control microorganisms and taste-and-odor-causing materials, which may influence organics removal by adsorption and membrane filtration . Thus, the addition of chlorine into an advanced water treatment process using a hybrid of adsorption and ultrafiltration (UF) was investigated in terms of natural organic matter (NOM) removal and membrane permeability . A comparison between two adsorbents, iron oxide particles (IOP) and powdered activated carbon (PAC), was made to understand the sorption behavior for NOM with and without chlorination . Chlorine modified the properties of dissolved and colloidal NOM in raw water, which brought about lower TOC removal, during IOP/UF . The location of IOPs, whether they were in suspension or in a cake layer, affected NOM removal, depending on the presence of colloidal particles in feedwater . Chlorine also played a role in reducing the size of particulate matter in raw water, which could be in close association with a decline in permeate flux after chlorination. Sci Total Environ, 2004 Jun 5, 325(1-3), 1 - 13 Environmental antimicrobial contamination from terraccumulation and diffuse pollution pathways; Rooklidge SJ; The fate of antimicrobial pharmaceuticals entering the aquatic environment has become an increasing concern for researchers and regulators in the past decade, and recent research has focused on antimicrobial contamination from point sources, such as wastewater treatment facility outfalls . Terraccumulation is the concentration of pollutants in soils from land application of contaminated biosolids generated by agricultural practices and water and wastewater facilities . The terraccumulation of antimicrobials and mobility in diffuse pollution pathways should not be overlooked as a contributor to the spread of bacterial resistance and the resulting threat to human drug therapy . This review critically examines recent global trends of bacterial resistance, antimicrobial contaminant pathways from agriculture and water treatment processes, and the need to incorporate diffuse pathways into risk assessment and treatment system design . Alignment of environmental scientific and engineering research with strategies applied in clinical situations could contribute to continued efficacy of antimicrobial therapies necessary for human health and welfare . Copryright 2003 Elsevier B.V. Adv Colloid Interface Sci, 2004 Jun 30, 110(1-2), 19 - 48 Chemistry of alumina, reactions in aqueous solution and its application in water treatment; Kasprzyk-Hordern B; Due to the presence and significance of alumina in the natural aquatic environment and its increasing application in drinking and wastewater purification, the knowledge of the structure of alumina and its possible interactions with organic and inorganic compounds in water are of great importance . This is of particular importance in both the understanding of natural aquatic environment processes and efficient industrial applications . The chemistry of alumina reactions in water is complex . The adsorption ability of alumina towards organic and inorganic compounds might be influenced by several factors such as: surface characteristics of the adsorbent (surface area, density, pore volume, porosity, pore size distribution, pH(PZC) as well as mechanical strength and purity), pH of the solution, ionic strength, composition of water and the physicochemical properties of adsorbates . The aim of this paper is to give a brief review of the properties of alumina and its reactivity with organic and inorganic compounds present in aqueous solutions . It also summarises the usage of alumina and alumina supported phases in water treatment technology. Water Res, 2004 May, 38(9), 2448 - 58 Distribution of linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) in riverine and coastal environments in South and Southeast Asia; Isobe KO et al.; This paper reports the result of sewage pollution monitoring conducted in South and Southeast Asia during 1998-2003 using linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) as molecular tracers of sewage contamination . Eighty-nine water samples collected from Malaysia, Vietnam, and Japan (Tokyo), and 161 surface sediment samples collected from Tokyo, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, and India were analyzed for alkylbenzenes . The concentration range of SigmaLABs in river water particles in Southeast Asia (<0.005-0.913 microg/L) was comparable to or higher than those found in Tokyo (<0.005-0.638 microg/L) . I/E ratios (a ratio of internal to external isomers of LABs) in tropical Asian waters were close to the value of LABs in raw sewage ( approximately 1) and much lower than those in secondary effluents (3-5) . This suggests that untreated or inadequately treated sewage is discharged into the water . SigmaLABs concentrations in sediments from South and Southeast Asia ranged from <0.002-42.6 microg/g-dry with the highest concentration occurring at several populous cities . Low I/E ratios of the sediments with high SigmaLABs concentrations suggest a heavy load of untreated sewage . Clearly in view of the current data and evidence of the implications of sewage pollution, this paper highlights the necessity of the continuation of water treatment system improvement in tropical Asia. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, 2004 May, 39(5), 1281 - 94 Toxicological characterization of the new water cleaning product and its waste by-product; Orescanin V et al.; Water extracts genotoxicity of the coagulant produced from industrial waste (red mud and waste base) and its waste mud remained after waste water treatment by the coagulation/flocculation process were studied . Tests were conducted in order to confirm nontoxicity of this new product prior to commercial production and usage and also to recommend a safe way for a handling and disposal of the remaining waste material . The toxicity investigation included (i) determining frequency of the cell survival, (ii) the Ames assays, (iii) micronucleus assay, and (iv) cell proliferation kinetics (expressed as mitotic index) . These techniques were also employed in toxicity testing of the different concentrations of metal salts, zinc chloride, and lead nitrate in this case since these two elements were present in high concentrations in the waste water intended for the purification with the new coagulant . Mixture of metal salts in the concentrations that represent maximum allowed values for water extracts of technological waste was also tested . Two strains of Salmonella typhimurium, TA98, and TA100 were used for determining cytotoxicity and for the Ames test, while the cytogenetic investigations were performed on human peripheral blood lymphocytes . Water extracts of the coagulant and its waste mud did not induce a significant increase of the micronuclei in human peripheral blood lymphocytes . They also did not disturb lymphocyte proliferation kinetics in vitro . As regards lead nitrate it proved not to be cytotoxic on bacterial strains in the tested concentration range (1-100 mg/L), whereas zinc chloride showed cytotoxic effect for the concentrations above 25 mg/L . The Ames test results for the noncytotoxic concentrations of these metals were negative . Comparing to the negative control a significantly higher number of the micronuclei was determined after the treatment of the whole blood with 100 mg/L of zinc chloride, as well as with 10 and 100 mg/L of lead nitrate . A linear, dose dependent increase was obtained for both salts . Similar results were obtained on the basis of the mitotic index. J Environ Sci (China), 2004, 16(2), 297 - 301 Physicochemical interaction and its influence on deep bed filtration process; Guo JL et al.; The capillary model was used to analyze the hydraulic conditions in the deep bed filtration process . The physicochemical interaction forces between the filter media and suspended particles and their influence on deep bed filtration process were also studied theoretically . Through the comparison of the hydraulic and physicochemical forces, the key influencing factors on the filtration process were proposed and investigated . Pilot study of the microflocculation deep bed filtration was carried out in the No . 9 Potable Water Treatment Plant of Beijing, and the experimental results of hydraulic head loss, particle distribution and entrapment were presented . The theoretical prediction was reasonably consistent with the experimental results under different conditions, which indicated that the regulation and control of micro-flocculation and deep bed filtration could be realized by the evaluation of the physicochemical interactions . Further theoretical and experimental research should be carried out to investigate the interaction mechanism and its application in the deep bed filtration and other cases. J Environ Sci (China), 2004, 16(2), 238 - 41 Kinetics of aniline oxidation with chlorine dioxide; Fan ZY et al.; For the first time, kinetics of aniline oxidation with chlorine dioxide (ClO2) were investigated systematically by detecting concentration of aniline with HPLC at regular intervals . Results showed that the reaction was first-order both in ClO2 and in aniline, and the oxidation reaction could be described as second-order reaction . Stoichiometric factor eta was experimentally determined to be 2.44 . The second-order-reaction rate constant k was 0.11 L/(mol x s) under condition of pH 6.86 and water temperature (Tw) 287K . Reaction activation energy was 72.31 kJ/mol, indicating that the reaction could take place under usual water treatment conditions . The reaction rate constants in acidic and alkali media were greater than that in neutral medium . Chlorite ion could slightly increase reaction rate in acidic medium . p-aminophenol and azobenzene were detected by GC-MS as intermediates. Water Sci Technol, 2004, 49(5-6), 129 - 36 Conceptual comparison of pink water treatment technologies: granular activated carbon, anaerobic fluidized bed, and zero-valent iron-Fenton process; Oh SY et al.; Pink water, explosive-laden wastewater produced in army ammunition plants is often treated using expensive and non-destructive granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption . This paper compares GAC adsorption and two alternative treatment technologies, anaerobic GAC fluidized bed reactor and zero-valent iron-Fenton process . The bench-scale demonstration of the zero-valent iron-Fenton process with real pink water is reported . The features of three technologies are compared and their advantages and drawbacks are discussed. Water Sci Technol, 2003, 48(10), 47 - 53 RIONET: a water quality management tool for river basins; Reuter H et al.; The water quality management tool RIONET for river basins has been developed with regard to the EU Water Framework Directive . The management tool can simulate the water quality in catchment basins not only in the dimension of a single river but in whole river networks . A submodel of the IWA River Water Quality Model No . 1 is used in RIONET . The river model is based on the assumption that self purification processes in the river takes place both in the benthic biofilm and the bulk water phase . Laboratory experiments with sediment cores underline the major role of the benthic biofilm . The input parameters of the management tool such as volumetric flow rates from waste water treatment plants and flow velocities and discharge in the main river and its tributaries can be loaded directly from geographic information systems (GIS) . The subcatchment basin of the river Bode in Saxon Anhalt was used for test runs of RIONET. J Environ Manage, 2004 Jun, 71(2), 169 - 77 Natural materials for treatment of industrial effluents: comparative study of the retention of Cd, Zn and Co by calcite and hydroxyapatite . Part I: batch experiments; Gomez del Rio JA et al.; This work explores the heavy metal retention capacity of materials developed from minerals that are abundant in nature, with low cost and minimum environmental impact . To accomplish this objective we have: (a) characterized commercial samples of calcite (CA) and hydroxyapatite (HAP)--including their surface properties (BET area, electrophoretic mobility, SEM, and X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy); and, (b) qualified and quantified the interaction of Cd, Zn and Co with calcite (CaCO3) and hydroxyapatite {Ca5(PO4)3OH} through batch experiments, in a range of metal concentrations (4<pMe<8) and pH (6<pH< 8.6) . Results show that the affinities of the studied heavy metals for CA and HAP surfaces follow the sequence: Cd>Zn>Co and Cd>Zn approximately Co, respectively . Retention increased with pCa and pH and could be modeled by: (a) a non-ideal ion exchange mechanism (Me/Ca) for the adsorption of Cd, Zn and Co onto CA; and, (b) a mechanism of non-ideal ion exchange and specific adsorption (Me/Ca and identical with PO4O-Me) in the case of HAP . The pH dependence is indirect in CA and is related to its solubility changes (pCa increases with pH, and so does sorption of Cd, Zn and Co) . Both materials, HAP and CA, can be used for heavy metal retention . The former has better performance for water treatment due to its greater efficiency for the retention of Cd, Zn and Co (over two orders of magnitude per gram of material) and its lower solubility in a wide range of pH (6<pH<9). J Chromatogr A, 2004 May 7, 1035(2), 281 - 4 New hydrophilic polymeric resin based on 4-vinylpyridine-divinylbenzene for solid-phase extraction of polar compounds from water; Fontanals N et al.; A 4-vinylpyridine-divinylbenzene (VP-DVB) resin was synthesized to be used for on-line solid-phase extraction process and it was tested for a group of polar compounds . The high specific surface area and the nitrogen content of the VP-DVB sorbent increased the interactions with the polar analytes in the preconcentration process . The sorbent enabled 100 ml of water to be concentrated with recoveries higher than 70% for several polar compounds (including phenol) except for oxamyl (55%) and methomyl (43%) . The method was used to analyse water samples by liquid chromatography and UV detection . Linearity was good and detection limits were 0.1-0.2 microg l(-1) for all compounds . Several tap and river water and waste water treatment plant samples were analyzed; phenol and (4-chloro-2-methyl-phenoxy)acetic acid (MCPA) were tentatively determined in some samples. J Chromatogr A, 2004 Apr 23, 1034(1-2), 175 - 82 Identification of 2,3-butanedione (diacetyl) as the compound causing odor events at trace levels in the Llobregat River and Barcelona's treated water (Spain); Diaz A et al.; A study of organic compounds imparting sweet and buttery odor problems in the Llobregat River (northeast Spain) and in treated water was conducted . Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), gas chromatography-olfactometry, and flavor profile analysis (FPA) were used as analytical methodologies to identify the compound responsible for odor incidents . 2,3-Butanedione (diacetyl) with a concentration range of 0.90-26 microg/l in river water samples entering the water treatment plant was identified as the compound causing the odor events . Flavor profile analysis establishes 0.05 microg/l as its odor threshold concentration (OTC) in water, with an odor recognition concentration of 0.20 microg/l . The analyses were carried out with SPME-GC-MS and parameters affecting SPME extraction such as selection of the fiber (carboxen-polydimethylsiloxane)