Wastewater

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1988 Jul, 54(7), 1874 - 5
Novel compound for identifying Escherichia coli; Watkins WD et al.; A new chromogenic compound, 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoxyl-beta-D-glucuronide, was found to be useful for the rapid, specific, differential identification of Escherichia coli in the sanitary analysis of shellfish and wastewater . Of 1,025 presumptively positive colonies (blue) and 583 presumptively negative colonies (nonblue), only 1% false-negative and 5% false-positive results were found.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1988 Jun, 186(3), 273 - 7
Non-seasonal distribution of rotavirus in Barcelona raw sewage; Bosch A et al.; To ascertain the occurrence of a seasonal distribution of human rotavirus in Barcelona raw sewage, surveys of rotavirus levels in wastewater were undertaken in November 1985 and July 1986 . A uniform distribution of rotaviruses was found to occur, which is consistent with the reported local frequencies of rotaviral diarrhoea, in contrast with the strict seasonability observed for rotavirus infections in temperate climates.

Biotechnol Appl Biochem, 1988 Apr, 10(2), 87 - 98
Multistep reactions with immobilized microorganisms; Bisping B et al.; This review presents some examples of new semicontinuous and continuous processes for product formation and for degradation of xenobiotics with immobilized microorganisms . A semicontinuous process for glycerol formation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, adsorbed on sintered glass, and a continuous production of citric acid with Aspergillus niger, entrapped in calcium alginate, are given as examples of the production of primary metabolites . The production of ergot alkaloids with entrapped Claviceps purpurea demonstrates the possibilities of production of secondary metabolites . The continuous degradation of phenolic substances and that of 4-chlorophenol by entrapped and adsorbed microorganisms are given as examples of the possibility of a continuous degradation of xenobiotics by immobilized microorganisms . The continuous degradation of these substances was successful not only in artificial solutions but also in sterile and nonsterile wastewater.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1988 Feb, 15(1), 96 - 106
Long-term effects of bleached kraft mill effluents on red and white blood cell status, ion balance, and vertebral structure in fish; Hardig J et al.; In a laboratory investigation fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis) were exposed for 5-9 months to wastewater from pine and birch lines from a bleached kraft pulp plant . This long-term exposure to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) affected the hematology, the ion balance, and the vertebral structure . Decreased values for hematocrit and hemoglobin and a reduced red blood cell count, as well as increased levels of methemoglobin, indicated disturbances in the red blood cell status . The white blood cell picture was not significantly affected by the BKME exposure . Decreased levels of potassium and chloride ions in the blood plasma in some of the exposed fish suggest an impaired ability to maintain ion homeostasis . Elevated frequencies of vertebral deformations in fish exposed to BKME confirm previous observations of vertebral damage in feral fourhorn sculpin caught in the receiving body of water of the same bleached kraft pulp industry . Many of the parameters analyzed in this investigation may be used as health indicators in future laboratory and field studies on fish exposed to BKME.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1988 Feb, 54(2), 409 - 15
Animal viruses, coliphages, and bacteria in aerosols and wastewater at a spray irrigation site; Brenner KP et al.; Aerosol samples collected at the Muskegon County Wastewater Management System Number 1 spray irrigation site in Michigan by using the Army prototype XM2 Biological Sampler/Collector were examined for the presence of animal viruses, coliphages, and bacteria . Air samples, collected in Earle lactalbumen hydrolysate, and wastewater samples were filtered through a 0.45- and 1.2-micron membrane filter sandwich, pretreated with 10% beef extract (pH 7.0), and assayed for animal viruses by the plaque method on Buffalo green monkey kidney cells . Untreated air and wastewater samples were assayed for coliphages by the soft agar overlay method with three Escherichia coli hosts (ATCC 13706, 15597, and 11303) and for bacteria by the heterotrophic plate count method . Filtered air samples were assayed for coliphages by the most-probable-number method with the same three hosts . Although no animal viruses were detected in the aerosol samples, coliphages and bacteria were recovered . E . coli ATCC 13706 coliphage were recovered more often and in greater numbers than either of the other two types of coliphages . Concentrations of animal viruses, coliphages, and bacteria detected in the raw influent decreased as the wastewater was aerated and stored in the lagoons . No animal viruses were detected in the wastewater at the pump station just before distribution to the spray irrigation rigs . The most-probable-number method was more sensitive and consistent than the overlay procedure in detecting low levels of coliphages in air samples.

J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol, 1988, 32(2), 153 - 8
Evaluation of enteric virus levels and serotypes recovered from wastewater and sea-water; Krikelis V et al.; The present study attempted to assess the levels of enteric viruses, as well as their serotypes, present in the wastewaters of the central Athens sewer of Keratsini (Greece), and in the receiving coastal sea-waters in the vicinity . From the parallel examination of 24 samples from each sampling source, during 1985, viruses were detected in 100% of wastewaters and in 87.5% of the receiving sea-waters . The virus loads in the receiving waters, 100 meters away from the polluting source, were found to be as low as 13% of the total virus content detected at the polluting source . From the identification of the recovered field-isolates it was found that in the polluting source (wastewater) 13 different serotypes of enteroviruses were present (not including untyped isolates), where as in the receiving coastal waters were found nine different serotypes, which correlate with those found in sewage effluents . The maximum levels detected from both sources were found in late Summer early Fall.

Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 1988, 78, 7 - 23
The transmission of virus disease by the marine environment; Shuval HI; Human enteric viruses in urban wastewater often flow into the marine environment through outfall sewers which can cause pollution of adjacent beaches used for bathing and of areas where fish and seafood grow and are harvested for human consumption . This paper will deal with the survival and dispersion of human enteric viruses in the marine environment and the risks to human health resulting from direct contact recreational activities such as bathing and/or the consumption of seafood, particularly mollusks which can concentrate viruses in the seawater and infect humans who eat such sea products raw or only partially cooked.

Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg, 1988, 78, 27 - 38
Penetration of E . coli and F2 bacteriophage into fish tissues; Fattal B et al.; Throughout the world, fish thrive in rivers, lakes and seawater polluted with wastewater . Furthermore, in some countries, wastewater-enriched fishponds are used for fish cultivation . One of the major constraints in using wastewater for aquaculture is the possible contamination of the fish by enteric pathogens (bacteria and viruses), which may penetrate and accumulate in fish tissue, and constitute a potential public health hazard, especially in countries in which raw fish are consumed . In order to evaluate the infection of fish cultivated in wastewater, controlled experiments were performed to study the penetration of bacteria and bacteriophage inoculated into water tanks in which the fish were maintained . Twenty to thirty Tilapia hybrids (Sarotherodon aureus x S . niloticus), of 100 gr average weight and some 20 cm long were introduced into a 1 m3 plastic tank, containing about 500 l tap water at a temperature of 20 degrees C . High protein fish feed was added at a rate of about 1% of body weight per day . Four experiments were performed using an inoculum of an E . coli strain resistant to streptomycin and nalidixic acid . One hour after inoculation, bacterial concentration was 10(5)-10(6)/ml tank water . Four experiments were carried out with F2 male-specific bacteriophage 10(3)-10(5)/ml tank water . In each experiment two fish were sacrificed at zero time (prior to introduction of inocula), and 1, 5, 24, 48 and 72 or more hours after inoculation . Water samples were withdrawn at the same intervals . The level of microorganisms was tested in the following tissues: digestive tract, skin, spleen, liver and muscle . E . coli assays were performed using the membrane filtration technique; phages were assayed, using E . coli host cells in a plaque assay . The results of the experiments indicate that notwithstanding the high E . coli concentration in the tank water, its level in the edible tissue (muscle) was low, and in no instance higher than the acceptable standard of 400 cfu/gr (International Commission for Food Specification, 1974) . The maximum concentration of F2 phage detected in muscle tissue was 350 pfu/gr . There is no standard for virus concentration in edible tissue.

Can J Microbiol, 1987 Aug, 33(8), 733 - 7
Temperature, pH, and cations affect the ability of Escherichia coli to mobilize plasmids in L broth and synthetic wastewater; Khalil TA et al.; Coincubations of plasmid donor and recipient cells in L broth and in synthetic wastewater demonstrated that a large number of environmental factors must be taken into account when measuring the potential for the dissemination of plasmid-encoded genes in natural environments . These include salts and detergents in the medium as well as other factors, e.g., pH and temperature . Complex interactions between and among agents were observed, indicating that simple additive effects may not be assumed . Mobilization of genetically engineered nonconjugative plasmid pHSV106 was inhibited by the same compounds that affected conjugative plasmid movement.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1987 Jul, 53(7), 1476 - 81
Changes in Escherichia coli cells starved in seawater or grown in seawater-wastewater mixtures; Munro PM et al.; Some metabolic modifications of Escherichia coli cells during starvation in seawater were studied in laboratory microcosms . The apparent die-off of this bacterium under such conditions, as observed by comparing the enumeration of CFU in conventional freshwater media and direct epifluorescence counts, was partially prevented when cells were previously grown in salted organic medium or on seawater-wastewater agar . beta-Galactosidase activity of starved cells disappeared gradually with time, even though some other enzymatic activities, such as that of alkaline phosphatase, increased . Moreover, some modifications of sensitivity to antibiotics, heavy metals, and bacteriophages in seawater- and wastewater-grown cells suggested that the cells undergo structural changes under natural marine conditions . These results provide additional experimental data indicating the possible active adaptation of E . coli cells to seawater.

J Assoc Off Anal Chem, 1987 Jul-Aug, 70(4), 727 - 33
Sulfuric acid cleanup and KOH-ethanol treatment for confirmation of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls: application to wastewater samples; Hernandez Hernandez F et al.; The efficacy of sulfuric acid cleanup and KOH-ethanol hydrolysis confirmation was studied for 22 organochlorine pesticides and 2 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) . Mean recoveries for different treatment times are given . The method was applied to analysis of several wastewater samples by gas chromatography with electron capture detection . Organochlorine compounds were extracted by using separatory funnels and 15% diethyl ether in hexane as extractant . All the compounds studied could be analyzed except trifluralin, dichloran, dieldrin, and endrin, which were destroyed after treatment with concentrated H2SO4 . The pesticides found most commonly in the samples analyzed were fenson, tetradifon, lindane, methoxychlor, and dicofol.

Am J Epidemiol, 1987 May, 125(5), 899 - 906
Viral antibodies in agricultural populations exposed to aerosols from wastewater irrigation during a viral disease outbreak; Fattal B et al.; The presence of antibodies to eight enteroviruses (echovirus types 4, 7, and 9, coxsackievirus types A9, B1, B3, and B4, and hepatitis A virus) and varicella-zoster virus was determined during a two-year period, 1980-1981, in paired blood samples of 777 persons in selected agricultural communities (kibbutzim) in Israel . These communities were divided into several categories on the basis of wastewater utilization for sprinkler irrigation and/or fish ponds . Among the nine viral antibodies studied, there was a consistent and significant excess of antibodies to echovirus type 4 only, particularly in the age group 0-5 years, in kibbutzim that had been exposed to aerosols from sprinkler irrigation with partially treated wastewater from nearby towns . This finding may be attributed to a major national echovirus type 4 epidemic, which had peaked shortly before the collection of the blood samples . The fact that no similar excess of the other viral antibodies studied was found in any of the kibbutz categories suggests that, under nonepidemic conditions, exposure to wastewater aerosols usually does not lead to an excess in enteroviral infection . No excess of clinical cases of echovirus type 4-associated disease (meningitis or encephalitis) was detected in the communities exposed to wastewater aerosol.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1987 Apr, 53(4), 761 - 7
Comparison of methods for rotavirus detection in water and results of a survey of Jerusalem wastewater; Guttman-Bass N et al.; Methods for the detection of viable rotaviruses and rotavirus antigen in water were developed and compared . The methods included laboratory-developed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) with chromogenic and luminescent substrates, commercial Rotazyme and Enzygnost ELISAs, and an indirect immunofluorescent assay . Of the methods tested, the immunofluorescent assay and the Enzygnost ELISA were the most sensitive for the simian rotavirus SA-11 . All of the methods were positive for human rotavirus from clinical specimens . Seeded SA-11 rotavirus was concentrated from water by absorption to and elution from Zeta Plus filters followed by organic flocculation . Interference with the assays by components of the wastewater concentrates was minimal for the ELISAs, although the undiluted organic flocs were cytotoxic for the immunofluorescent assay . A survey of Jerusalem wastewater was carried out over the course of 1 year, and samples were assayed for rotaviruses and enteroviruses . Although enteroviruses were found in almost all of the samples, all samples were negative for rotaviruses . The concentration of rotaviruses in the wastewater was thus below the detection limit of the method used.

J Chromatogr, 1987 Mar 18, 390(1), 111 - 20
Isotachophoretic determination of chromium(VI) at low parts per billion concentrations; Zelensky I et al.; Factors important in the isotachophoretic determination of CrVI at low ppb concentrations were studied . To increase the selectivity of the analysis, the use of photometric detection at a 405 wavelength was preferred . Losses of CrVI due to adsorption were found to be the main potential source of analytical errors at the concentration levels of interest . The presence of sulphate in the sample solution at ca . 10(-4) M concentration eliminated the losses due to adsorption on the walls of the sample handling glassware . In analysis with a low pH of the leading electrolyte, adsorption of CrVI on the walls of the separation compartment also played a role; addition of naphthalene-1,3,6-trisulphonate to the sample solution considerably reduced this disturbance . When the precautions concerning adsorption were taken, the detection limits for CrVI were in the range 4-5 ppb (depending on the pH of the leading electrolyte) for a 30-microliters sample volume . The calibration graphs were linear over the concentration range 10(-7)-5 X 10(-6) M with good correlation coefficients . The reproducibilities of the determinations within this concentration range were 2-3% or better . The practical utility of capillary isotachophoresis in the trace determination of CrVI in drinking water and wastewater samples seems promising.

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1987 Mar, 3(1), 74 - 83
Mosquito production and hydrological capacity of southeast Florida impoundments used for wastewater retention; Carlson DB et al.; In Indian River County, Florida mosquito control impoundments, larval mosquito sampling and hydrological measurements demonstrated the importance of careful consideration of these factors when developing management plans for impoundments used for wastewater retention . Discharging secondarily treated wastewater into an impoundment resulted in only minor mosquito production . However, a treatment plant failure produced extremely high Culex densities in the impoundment . Average water loss rates in impoundments studied were due to evapotranspiration (0.25 cm/day) and percolation (0.38 cm/day) . Greatest percolation (0.68 cm/day) was measured when the impoundments were maximally flooded . Under the conditions of this study, the impoundments can assimilate approximately 124 cm/year of wastewater (1.52 million liters/day) over a 50 ha area without overflows.

J Chromatogr Sci, 1987 Jan, 25(1), 12 - 6
An evaluation of microextraction/capillary column gas chromatography for monitoring industrial outfalls; Thielen DR et al.; Microextraction and capillary-column gas chromatography techniques are applied to plant discharge streams for repetitive wastewater discharge permit analyses . This combination allows the analyst to reduce sample preparation since microextraction replaces both purge-and-trap for volatiles and microextraction for semi-volatiles . An additional advantage is the elimination of a concentration step, which is often a major contributor to low method recoveries . The overall procedure is shown to be more precise than purge-and-trap but slightly less precise than conventional extraction . The results of each method are shown to be equivalent.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1987 Jan, 53(1), 99 - 104
Comparison of two biological aerosol sampling methods; Zimmerman NJ et al.; Two biological aerosol samplers, the Andersen two-stage microbial impactor and the May three-stage glass impinger, were examined to determine the benefits and effectiveness of the May sampler compared with the Andersen sampler, one of the most widely accepted samplers . Side-by-side samples were collected during simulated wastewater spray irrigation dispersion studies . Escherichia coli colony counts and air concentrations were statistically treated to determine the dependability of the May results with respect to the Andersen results . After data pairs containing potentially overloaded Andersen counts were eliminated, a linear regression of the remaining data was performed . It indicates that although the May sampler reports 82% of the Andersen sampler value, the correlation between the two samplers is good with an r2 value of 0.84 . This comparison indicates that although there are differences between the two samplers, they do give comparable results and that when both are used in a sampling program, they tend to complement each other.

Acta Biol Hung, 1987, 38(1), 161 - 83
The concurrent growth of plants and chemical purification of wastewater used as a hydroponic unit; Jurdi M et al.; In this study the seedling of a variety of plants were successfully grown hydroponically on raw wastewater obtained from one of the main sewer outfalls in Beirut . In the first phase, a series of experiments was run on a batch system in glass or plastic containers provided with aeration facilities . A continuous-flow system with recirculation was adopted in the second phase . Iron supplementation was applied in all cases to compensate for its deficiency in the raw wastewater used . The immediate and ultimate objectives of the project were threefold: (a) to demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing as a hydroponic medium untreated municipal wastewater having relatively high mean values for BOD and mineral content; (b) to achieve the growth of useful plants on such readily available hydroponic media, thereby saving on fertilizers and scarce water resources; and (c) reclamation of the wastewater through biological purification leading to the gradual depletion of the nutritive constituents . Experimental conditions are described, and the data presented leads to the conclusion that the system is practicable on a laboratory scale . It has great potential for trial on a pilot scale prior to field applications in developing countries suffering from water shortage and hard currency expended on imported fertilizers and wastewater purification facilities.

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1986 Dec, 2(4), 516 - 21
Distribution of mosquitoes in different wastewater stages of secondarily treated domestic effluent and untreated citrus washwater; Carlson DB et al.; In Indian River County, Florida, mosquito populations were monitored weekly for 12 months in early and more advanced treatment stages of secondarily treated domestic wastewater and also in untreated primary and secondary citrus packing house washwater . Well defined differences in mosquito species abundances for early vs . late wastewater stages existed . In the early levels of secondarily treated effluent and in the primary citrus washwater, Culex quinquefasciatus populations were dominant . In the later wastewater stages of both systems, Cx . nigripalpus, Anopheles spp . and Uranotaenia spp . were more common . Seasonal Culex spp . abundance patterns were apparent at some but not all study sites . Water chemistry measurements demonstrated that both systems contained relatively low levels of nutrient-related parameters with large concentration variability.

Sci Total Environ, 1986 Oct, 54, 107 - 25
Trace metals in scalp hair of children and adults in three Alberta Indian villages; Moon J et al.; This study examined trace metal levels in scalp hair taken from 122 children and 27 adult residents of three small northern Alberta (Canada) Indian villages, one of which is situated close to the world's first tar sands oil extraction plants . The three communities studied were: Fort McKay (the exposed village), Fort Chipewyan (also in the tar sands ecosystem but distant from the plants), and Garden River (not in the tar sands ecosystem) . Inductively coupled argon plasma emission spectroscopy was used to determine hair sample metal content . Nineteen metals were included in data analysis . Children from Fort McKay had the highest average hair lead, cadmium and nickel levels . Chromium levels were approximately equal in hair from Fort McKay and Garden River children, and significantly elevated above levels found in the hair of Fort Chipewyan children . Children from Garden River showed highest hair levels of eight metals: vanadium, aluminum, iron, manganese, barium, zinc, magnesium and calcium . Fort Chipewyan children had the highest hair levels of copper, but the lowest levels of all other metals . Among adults, hair lead, nickel and cadmium levels were highest in Fort McKay residents, while phosphorous and vanadium were highest in hair from Garden River residents . Bioaccumulation of lead, cadmium, nickel and chromium in hair from Fort McKay residents may be related to exposure to extraction plant pollution . Plant stack emissions are known to contain appreciable amounts of lead, nickel and chromium . Spills into the Athabasca River, until recently the source of Fort McKay drinking water, have been reported from plant wastewater holding ponds, known to contain elevated levels of lead, nickel and cadmium . An increased number of significant metal-metal correlations in hair metal levels for Fort McKay children suggests a richer source of multiple metal exposure, relative to children in the other two communities.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1986 Oct, 52(4), 778 - 81
Elimination of overgrowth in delayed-incubation membrane filter test for total coliforms by m-ST holding medium; Chen M et al.; Two holding media were compared for their effects on total coliform recovery by the delayed-incubation membrane filter procedure . LES-MF holding medium contains tryptone, m-Endo broth, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium benzoate, sulfanilamide, para-aminobenzoic acid, and cycloheximide (pH 7.0) . m-ST holding medium contains ethanol, sodium monophosphate, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, sulfanilamide, and Tris (pH 8.6) . In tests with natural water and wastewater samples from various sources, recovery with LES-MF and m-ST were similar after a 1-day holding period . With LES-MF, however, after a 2- or 3-day holding period, coliform bacteria frequently were partially or totally overgrown by noncoliforms, causing significant reductions in coliform counts . No significant overgrowth was observed with m-ST . We propose that m-ST be used for all holding periods longer than 1 day.

Vet Hum Toxicol, 1986 Oct, 28(5), 435 - 42
Health risk analysis of human exposures to soil amended with sewage sludge contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans; Eschenroeder A et al.; The risk of cancer to humans exposed to soil treated with wastewater/sewage treatment plant sludge, known to be contaminated with small amounts of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs and PCDFs), was evaluated . The particulate-bound PCDDs and PCDFs are found in trace amounts in the effluent from ground water pumping (dewatering) at an abandoned wood preservation facility . The water, which was sent to a water recovery plant, underwent primary and secondary treatment prior to discharge . The residual sludge was added to agricultural soil as a conditioner . The present analysis treats the extreme case of sludge applied near the home of a target individual, a lifetime resident, who is also a farm worker in the area of the application . The successive stages of infancy, childhood and adulthood are treated separately to assess the contributions of typical age-specific indoor and outdoor activities on exposure rates . Five toxicity rating schemes using so-called TCDD equivalents, and two unit risk slopes are applied to the chemical profile in sludge to determine the cancer potency of the soil contaminants . These risk estimates range from 1 X 10-8 to 3 X 10-7.

J Med Virol, 1986 Oct, 20(2), 189 - 97
Prevalence of antibodies to enteroviruses and varicella-zoster virus among residents and overseas volunteers at agricultural settlements in Israel; Margalith M et al.; Within the framework of a comprehensive study of the correlation between enteric diseases and wastewater utilization in agricultural settlements (kibbutzim) the prevalence of several viral antibodies was examined among kibbutz residents and overseas volunteers . The latter were assumed to be a group highly susceptible to local pathogens . For the purpose of this study the presence of antibodies against eight enteroviruses {Coxsackieviruses (COX) types A9, B1, B3, and B4, echoviruses (ECHO) types 4, 7, and 9, and hepatitis A virus (HAV)} and a nonenterovirus, varicella-zoster virus (VZV), was tested in their sera . The prevalence of these viral antibodies among 342 volunteers (aged 18 to 34 years) upon their arrival at the kibbutzim was compared with that of 176 kibbutz residents of the same age . Seroconversion (ie, acquisition of viral antibodies) was tested in 115 of the volunteers two months after their arrival at the kibbutz . The prevalence of antibodies against each of the eight enteroviruses studied was found to be significantly higher among the kibbutz residents, but the prevalence of antibodies to VZV was similarly high in both groups (52% for volunteers and 59% for kibbutz residents) . The mean antibody prevalence for the seven COX and ECHO viruses was 2.1 antibodies/person in the volunteer group v 4.7 antibodies/person among the kibbutz residents . Fifty-eight percent (58%) of the residents had antibodies to HAV as compared with 14% of the volunteers . No correlation was found between seropositivity (ie, previous exposure) to various enteroviruses and the immune status to HAV or VZV in both kibbutz residents and volunteers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 1986 Sep, 6(3), 238 - 47
The use of chemical and biological parameters to characterize complex industrial effluents; Bengtsson BE et al.; Hitherto, the concern for possible environmental effects due to aqueous industrial discharges has been directed toward clearly observable effects such as eutrophication and fish kills . However, the development of environmental toxicology and chemistry has made it clear that more subtle and potential long-term effects also have to be taken into account in the regulatory work . The Swedish Environment Protection Board has recently completed a research project: "Characterization of Industrial Effluents." Initially, analytical methods and laboratory tests, originally developed for single substances, were identified . Laboratories were then invited to participate, with their own methods, in ring tests with a variety of industrial effluent waters . The studies indicated that a number of chemical and biological methods can be used to characterize complex industrial wastewaters with regard to their content of toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative substances . A frame program was established for the construction of test batteries adapted to various administrative regulatory purposes . To date, this strategy has been applied to several industries by the authorities, resulting in valuable experience of cost-effectiveness and the usefulness in the administrative decision-making process . Besides the studies on single industries, two other approaches have been applied, namely for the assessment of the impact of several industries on a common receiving water body, and for the evaluation of a whole industrial branch, that is, kraft pulp mill bleachery effluents . In the latter case, the studies have resulted in a ranking of processes and treatment methods to protect the environment.

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1986 Sep, 2(3), 329 - 35
Studies on potential biological control agents of immature mosquitoes in sewage wastewater in southern California; Mian LS et al.; Three biological control agents, a copepod, Mesocyclops leuckarti pilosa, and two fish, Cyprinodon macularius and Poecilia reticulata, were evaluated for their survival in secondary sewage effluent (SSE) and predation potential on mosquito larvae . Results showed that the survival of M . l . pilosa was not significantly affected in SSE or SSE diluted (50%) with water . In predation tests, the copepod consumed from 50 to 90% of the 1st-instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus in 24 to 72 hr and P . reticulata fed on almost all stages (egg to pupa) of the test mosquitoes . Survivorship of P . reticulata and C . macularius in SSE was not significantly affected by SSE under both greenhouse and sewage aquaculture conditions . Poecilia reticulata was distributed towards the influent end and C . macularius towards the effluent end of the aquaculture ponds, indicating the former species can tolerate higher levels of pollution which exists at the influent end of the pond . However, low water temperature and dissolved oxygen may be detrimental to these fish species in sewage aquacultural systems.

Public Health Rep, 1986 Sep-Oct, 101(5), 527 - 31
Campers' diarrhea outbreak traced to water-sewage link; Starko KM et al.; From June through September 1979, diarrheal illness occurred in an estimated 1,850 persons who had camped at a private campground in Arizona . Illness occurred more frequently among campers at that campground than among those in the adjacent State park (P less than 0.0001) . The same well served both the private and the State campgrounds as the source of drinking water, but that water was distributed to the two campgrounds through separate lines . Illness was significantly associated with drinking water at the campsite (P less than 0.0001), drinking larger quantities of campsite water (P less than 0.001), and camping on the southwest side of the campground (P less than 0.001) . Samples of the water collected from the system during January through June contained no coliform bacteria . However, all those samples had been collected from the State park only . Of the 11 water samples submitted for bacteriological analyses during the summer, 3 had high levels of bacteria . Excavation of the water system uncovered a direct cross connection between the potable water system and a sewage-effluent irrigation system . This outbreak calls attention to the importance of designing, maintaining, and monitoring potable water systems properly, especially those proximate to wastewater re-use systems.

Am J Public Health, 1986 Aug, 76(8), 977 - 9
Health risks associated with wastewater irrigation: an epidemiological study; Fattal B et al.; An analysis of morbidity was made in 11 kibbutzim (cooperative agricultural settlements), with a total population of 3,040, that had switched from nonwastewater to wastewater sprinkler irrigation or vice versa . Generally, partially treated stabilization pond effluent of poor microbial quality was used for irrigation . Vegetables or salad crops were not irrigated with effluent . The results showed that a seasonal, twofold, excess risk of "enteric" disease was found in the 0 to 4 year-old age group during the summer irrigation months in those years in which wastewater was used for irrigation, compared with the parallel summer months of nonwastewater irrigation years in the same kibbutz . On the year round rates basis, little or no excess enteric disease was found in wastewater irrigating communities.

Sci Total Environ, 1986 Jun, 52(1-2), 41 - 7
Accumulation of cadmium, mercury and lead by vegetables following long-term land application of wastewater; Shariatpanahi M et al.; Several vegetable species which are part of the daily diet of Tehran's population were examined for potential uptake of cadmium, mercury and lead from soil following longterm land application of wastewater . The three study sites located in the south of Tehran have been receiving untreated domestic wastewater by flood irrigation for many years . Elevated levels of cadmium, mercury and lead were found in the upper layers of soil . Examined vegetables accumulated some cadmium, mercury and lead from treated soils, but accumulation was relatively low . Due to the low concentration of these metals and their poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract (excluding absorption of lead in children), it does not appear that the short-term consumption of these contaminated vegetables would produce acute toxicity . However, since absorption of dietary lead in children is relatively high and children are very sensitive to lead toxicity, short-term consumption of these vegetables plus other environmental sources of these metals in Tehran may produce chronic effects in children.

Microbiol Sci, 1986 Jun, 3(6), 179 - 82
Microbial problems with waste from potato-starch processing; Nanninga HJ et al.; In recent years, anaerobic wastewater purification processes have been improved considerably . By its very composition potato wastewater causes a series of rather specific problems for its anaerobic treatment.

J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 1986 Jun, 2(2), 146 - 9
Determination and significance of suspended protein in wastewater; Van Handel E; A simple method is presented to measure the nutrient load of wastewater . Suspended particles, including microorganisms, are collected on a membrane filter by vacuum filtration, followed by colorimetric protein assay . Soluble proteins can be determined in the filtrate by precipitation . In domestic sewage and agricultural dairy wastewater, the largest portion of protein was retained on the membrane . Young larvae of Culex nigripalpus, Cx . quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti pupated when maintained in wastewater or its sediment but not when maintained in a membrane filtrate . If mosquito larvae feed primarily on suspended particles, the assay can be used to identify major feeding areas and may result in more economic application of microbial larvicides that act as food poisons.

Int J Environ Anal Chem, 1986, 26(3-4), 241 - 63
Long-chain alkylbenzenes: their analytical chemistry, environmental occurrence and fate; Eganhouse RP; Since ca . 1950 long-chain alkylbenzenes have been produced industrially for the synthesis of alkylbenzenesulfonates, the anionic surfactants most commonly used in commercial detergents . Prior to 1965 the alkylbenzenes were generated by Frieldel-Crafts alkylation of benzene with tetrapropylene . This reaction produces a complex assemblage of phenylalkanes (TABs) having highly branched side chains . Due to their stability, the TABs proved to be environmentally troublesome and were ultimately replaced (during the mid-1960s) by the linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) . The LABs consist of a mixture of secondary phenylalkanes with linear alkyl side chains ranging in length from C10 to C14 . Because of their unique structures and composition, these compounds are easily identified and measured in complex environmental samples . The linear alkylbenzenes are also found in municipal wastewaters where their presence is thought to result from the use of domestic and industrial detergents . Because they are synthetic and unlikely to occur in other significant inputs to coastal marine waters, long-chain alkylbenzenes have obvious potential as waste-specific molecular tracers . The presence of long-chain alkylbenzenes in sediment trap particulates and marine sediments collected near a major waste outfall system in southern California indicates that these hydrocarbons can survive exposure to an oxygenated water column during sedimentation . Whereas changes in the isomer composition of the LABs with depth in the sediments are suggestive of microbial alteration, the vertical distribution of the TABs and LABs can be used as a geochronological tool to reconstruct waste depositional histories.

Int J Environ Anal Chem, 1986, 24(3), 183 - 91
Fate of atrazine and trifluralin from an industrial waste dumping at the Llobregat River . Presence in fish, raw and finished water; Rivera J et al.; Analysis carried out after fish mortality in an industrial area in the neighbourhood of the Llobregat River, water supplier for Barcelona and its area, led us to identify two herbicides (atrazine and trifluralin) in the wastewaters from an industrial sewage where, among other factories one at least, is devoted to pesticide manufacturing . The fate of these herbicides is followed in fish (dorsal muscle), raw water entering the water works plant and tap water . Analyses by GC, GC/MS/DS and mass fragmentography were routinely employed.

IARC Sci Publ, 1986, (77), 31 - 7
Source assessment of hexachlorobenzene from the organic chemical manufacturing industry; Jacoff FS et al.; The Office of Solid Waste of the US Environmental Protection Agency determines the hazards of wastes produced by the organic chemical manufacturing industry . Based on these determinations, regulations have been laid down for many wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . Additional wastes from this industry will be considered for regulation following further study and evaluation . Among the wastes under study are hexachlorobenzene (HCB)-containing wastes . Although HCB is no longer manufactured in the USA, the US Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that approximately 4130 t are generated annually as a by-product in the production of chlorinated organics and pesticides . Of this total, about 77% (3178 t) is generated from the production of three chlorinated solvents: tetrachloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethylene . All wastewater containing HCB is treated biologically in surface impoundments, resulting in HCB accumulation in the biological sludge . Disposal methods for HCB-containing sludges and distillation bottoms are incineration and landfilling, with 81% (3345 t) being incinerated and 19% (785 t) going to landfills.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1985 Oct, 10(2), 190 - 6
Estimating the mass of mutagens in indeterminate mixtures; Schaeffer DJ et al.; A method is shown for estimating the quantity (mass) of genotoxic compounds in complex mixtures without prior identification of components . This method uses fractiles of the probability distribution of responses from the assay of interest and dose-response of the mixture . The method depends upon the assumption of additivity, on average, in the interaction of mutagens and on lognormality of the distribution of mutagen molecular weights . Mass estimates are necessary for hazard characterization, risk estimation, and risk assessment . The method is illustrated using Ames assay results from a coke plant wastewater.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1985 Oct, 50(4), 989 - 95
Reactions of fish to microorganisms in wastewater; Buras N et al.; Fish were inoculated with various microorganisms present in wastewater . A threshold concentration was determined over which these microorganisms were recovered from the muscles . The threshold concentrations were different for bacteria, bacteriophages, and polio 1 LSc virus . The threshold values were lower when fish were inoculated than when they were immersed in water containing these organisms . Depuration experiments were efficient when the fish did not contain high concentrations of bacteria in their muscles . As the threshold concentrations are an expression of the capability of the immune system of the fish, these values can be useful for the design and management of fishponds in which treated wastewater is used.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1985 Aug, 10(1), 22 - 39
Sewage effluent biomonitoring . I . Survival, growth, and histopathological effects in channel catfish; Mitz SV et al.; A 17-day, in situ, biomonitoring study using caged, juvenile channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) was conducted at five sites along a 9-km section of the Flint River at the Anthony Ragnone Wastewater Treatment Plant near Montrose, Michigan . Effects on survival, growth, and gill and liver histopathology were examined . No differences in growth, measured as wet weight gain, were observed between upstream control (UP) and experimental fish located 9 km downstream from the outfall (Down 4) . Acute, 100% mortality occurred at study sites 300 and 500 m downstream from the outfall (Down 1 and Down 2, respectively) . Mortality was probably due to excessive mean total residual chlorine concentration (0.24 and 0.30 mg/liter at Down 1 and Down 2, respectively) . No mortality was observed at the remaining study sites . Forty percent of the fish at UP had slight hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the respiratory epithelium . All fish at Down 4 had two or more moderate to severe histopathological damages to the gills, including severe hyperplasia of the epithelial cells, clubbing and fusion of the secondary lamellae, moderate to severe edema in the secondary lamellae, and multiple, blood-filled aneurysms . Thirty-eight percent of livers from the UP fish were extremely vacuolated compared to 60% of the Down 4 fish livers . Both the vacuolated and less vacuolated (dense) liver sections stained negatively for lipids with oil red O . The vacuolated liver sections were qualitatively more intense than the dense sections when stained with Best's carmine . Vacuolated liver sections stained negatively with Best's carmine when pretreated with amylase, thereby indicating that the vacuolation represented glycogen storage . There was no correlation between the histopathological changes and any deleterious effects on growth or survival during the 17-day exposure . However, the gill histopathological changes would likely increase susceptibility to bacterial gill disease, and cause a reduction in the scope for activity due to impaired oxygen diffusion in the gills.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1985 Aug, 50(2), 280 - 6
Enteroviruses in sludge: multiyear experience with four wastewater treatment plants; Hamparian VV et al.; We describe our experience with the isolation of viruses from four treatment plants located in different geographic areas . Over a period of 3 years, 297 enteroviruses were isolated from 307 sludge samples . The highest frequency of viral isolation (92%), including multiple isolates from single samples, was obtained from a treatment plant serving the smallest population . Excluding the polioviruses, 22 different enterovirus serotypes were isolated . The methods used to isolate the viruses were relatively simple and included an elution procedure in which beef extract was used and a disinfection step . No concentration procedure was used . Of three cell culture systems used, the RD line of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells was by far the most useful for the isolation of echoviruses; BGM and HeLa cells were particularly useful for the isolation of group B coxsackieviruses . A seasonal effect on viral isolation rates from sludge was observed.

Naturwissenschaften, 1985 May, 72(5), 238 - 48
{Hygienic aspects of agricultural land applications of wastewater and sewage sludge}; Muller HE; Wastewater can be removed either by introducing it into rivers or by land application . Both methods are burdened with different hygienic risks . Generally, the danger of disease infections associated with agricultural land application of wastewater is overestimated . On the other hand, the potential health hazard caused by the introduction of wastewater into rivers or coastal waters are underevaluated . Reasons of hygiene are given, however, the main cause of the hygiene risk is due to cultural and social aspects.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1985 Apr, 49(4), 836 - 41
Transfer of plasmids pBR322 and pBR325 in wastewater from laboratory strains of Escherichia coli to bacteria indigenous to the waste disposal system; Gealt MA et al.; Laboratory strains of Escherichia coli containing plasmid pBR325 (or pBR322) were coincubated with a mobilizer strain of E . coli (containing the conjugative plasmid R100-1) and a recipient strain of bacteria . Bacterial strains isolated from raw wastewater or a plasmid-free E . coli laboratory strain served as recipients . Transfer of the pBR plasmid into the recipient strain occurred during a 25-h coincubation in either L broth or sterilized wastewater; transfer frequencies were several orders of magnitude lower in wastewater . After the coincubation, recipients exhibited both plasmid-encoded phenotypic characteristics and an altered plasmid profile, as shown by agarose gel electrophoresis of purified plasmid DNA.

Br J Ind Med, 1985 Feb, 42(2), 123 - 7
Sperm as an indicator of reproductive risk among petroleum refinery workers; Rosenberg MJ et al.; A questionnaire study of men in a wastewater treatment plant of a petroleum refinery showed twice the rate of fetal loss in the period during employment in the plant compared with the periods before and after . Questions regarding the interpretation of that study and continuing concern about reproductive risk prompted us to perform a cross sectional evaluation of sperm concentration and morphology . After adjustment for an abstinence period, the mean sperm concentration of the 74 unexposed men did not differ significantly from that of the 34 exposed men (79.9 million/cm3 v 68.2 million/cm3, p(1) = 0.16) . The two groups also had a similar proportion of sperm with abnormal morphology (49.1% v 44.5%, p(1) = 0.94) . This lack of association remained when degree of exposure, age, use of alcohol and marijuana, past illness or fever, use of baths or sauna, and history of urological problems were considered . These results are most consistent with the absence of sperm mediated reproductive problems.

Am J Vet Res, 1985 Jan, 46(1), 165 - 8
Heavy metals in fluids and tissues of fetal calves and in young calves of nursing cows exposed or not exposed to anaerobically digested wastewater sludge; Fitzgerald PR et al.; Fetal fluid, diaphragm muscle, heart, kidney, and liver from 14 four- to five-month-old calf fetuses were analyzed for Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Fe . The same tissues and bone were examined from postparturient calves 30, 60, and 120 days of age . Weaned calves (8 to 9 months old) were necropsied and diaphragm muscle, heart, kidney, liver, brain, and bone were analyzed . Additional calves from cows exposed or not exposed to anaerobically digested sludge were placed in a feed yard at weaning for a feeding period of 150 days and then were killed and necropsied . Heavy metal content of the aforementioned tissues was compared with the same tissues obtained from peer calves weaned, killed, and necropsied 150 days earlier . Zinc, Cu, and Fe were up to 11 times higher in fetal livers than in control or exposed postparturient calves . These concentrations declined after birth and stabilized at approximately the concentrations observed in adult cattle at about 12 to 14 months of age . Cadmium accumulated to a greater extent in kidneys and livers of exposed calves than in control calves . However, the accumulation did not produce a detectable effect upon the functional or morphologic characteristics of the organs examined . Other metals were present at low levels and were generally not remarkably different in control and exposed animals.

Am J Public Health, 1985 Jan, 75(1), 83 - 5
Serologic survey of rotavirus, Norwalk agent and Prototheca wickerhamii in wastewater workers; Clark CS et al.; Analysis of paired sera from 48 wastewater workers and controls who reported gastrointestinal illness did not reveal any excess of seroconversions to Norwalk agent or to rotavirus . Inexperienced wastewater-exposed workers had higher levels of antibody to Norwalk agent than did experienced and control workers and those with high and medium aerosol exposure had higher titres than those in the low aerosol category . Analysis for Prototheca antibody titres was essentially negative.

J Natl Cancer Inst, 1984 Nov, 73(5), 1133 - 42
Papillomas on fish exposed to chlorinated wastewater effluent; Grizzle JM et al.; The presence of carcinogenic and mutagenic chemical(s) in the effluent of a wastewater treatment plant was indicated by papillomas developing on caged black bullheads (Ictalurus melas), hepatic enzyme induction in exposed fish, and Ames test mutagenicity of organic extracts of the wastewater . Although virus-like particles have been reported in papillomas of several other fish species, no evidence was obtained for the presence of viruses in the black bullhead papillomas . Mutagenic and carcinogenic chemicals were not identified in the wastewater, but chlorination was implicated as a factor contributing to the induction of the papillomas . The prevalence of papillomas on wild black bullheads exposed to the effluent decreased from 73 to 23% after the amount of residual chlorine (CAS: 7782-50-5) in the effluent leaving the chlorine contact chamber was reduced from 1.3-3.1 mg/liter to 0.25-1.2 mg/liter.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Nov, 48(5), 1046 - 8
Anaerobic inhibition of trace organic compound removal during rapid infiltration of wastewater; Hutchins SR et al.; When soil columns were operated aerobically on a flooding-drying schedule in a previous study, good removals were observed for several organic compounds at concentrations ranging from 1 to 1,000 micrograms per liter in primary wastewater . In this study, fractional breakthroughs of most compounds increased substantially once operating parameters were modified and the soil became anaerobic . These results imply that microbial removal of trace organic compounds can be inhibited if anaerobic conditions develop during rapid infiltration of wastewater.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Nov, 48(5), 1039 - 45
Microbial removal of wastewater organic compounds as a function of input concentration in soil columns; Hutchins SR et al.; The fate of six organic compounds during rapid infiltration of primary wastewater through soil columns was studied . Feed solutions were prepared which contained all six compounds in individual concentrations ranging from 1 to 1,000 micrograms/liter and were applied to separate soil columns on a flooding-drying schedule . Feed solutions and column effluents were analyzed for the compounds by XAD resin (Rohm and Haas Co.) extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry during each of three successive inundation cycles . Breakthrough profiles of o-phenylphenol were relatively consistent during the test, with fractional breakthrough (mass output/mass input) being independent of input concentration . Consistent profiles were also observed for 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole, although fractional breakthroughs were higher at lower input concentrations, indicating that removal processes were operating less efficiently at these levels . The behavior of p-dichlorobenzene was similar to that of 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole after the first inundation cycle, with the exception that increased fractional breakthroughs were observed at the highest input concentration as well . Microbial adaptation was evident for benzophenone, 2-methylnaphthalene, and p-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenol, as indicated by increased removal efficiencies during successive inundation cycles, especially at the higher input concentrations . Column effluent concentrations of the latter two compounds were independent of input concentrations during the final stage of the test . Microbial activity and adaptation were confirmed for several of the compounds by using isotopes and measuring the extent of mineralization in batch tests with soil from one of the columns.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Am Fam Physician, 1984 Oct, 30(4), 97 - 104
Water and health; Guidotti TL et al.; The systems protecting the quality of drinking water in the United States are deteriorating . Many urban water and sewer systems are obsolete . Industrial wastes are imposing a burden on wastewater treatment facilities . In the U.S., outbreaks of water-borne disease are primarily limited to enteritis associated with viruses or Giardia . Issues in the contamination of drinking water by toxic substances include disposal practices, accidental contamination, agricultural runoff and chlorination byproducts . Physicians must support stringent enforcement of water quality standards.

J Hyg (Lond), 1984 Aug, 93(1), 157 - 63
Inactivation of human rotavirus, SA11 and other enteric viruses in effluent by disinfectants; Harakeh M et al.; A preparation of infectious human rotavirus, isolated from faeces and resuspended in wastewater effluent, was shown to be inactivated by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone and peracetic acid . Infectivity was assayed in MA 104 cells by the detection of cell-associated viral antigen by immunofluorescence . The inactivation curves were similar to those reported for other enteric viruses . Human rotavirus was at least as resistant as poliovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus and f2 coliphage and was strikingly less sensitive to inactivation than the simian rotavirus, SA11 . The latter was generally the most sensitive of the six tested viruses yet is often taken as being representative of the human rotaviruses.

Virologie, 1984 Jul-Sep, 35(3), 207 - 31
Some health implications of the occurrence of enteric viruses in water and soil; Nestor I; A brief review is given of the virological, epidemiological and hygiene and public health aspects of the occurrence of enteric viruses in water and soil . Data are summarized as regards: detection and survival of viruses in different types of water and in the soil, the characteristics of the transmission and the minimum infective dose of enteric viruses, reports on waterborne epidemic outbreaks of virus diseases . The necessity of establishing standards for the virus monitoring of waters and for the virus quality of drinking or recreational water is discussed . Considerations is given to the possible use of some indicators of enteric viruses in water . The different treatment procedures allowing removal of viruses from wastewater or from surface waters used as potable water sources are critically discussed.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1984 Jun, 179(3), 274 - 9
{Helminthologic studies of waste water and the population of Braunschweig}; Faasch H et al.; The concentration and the different species of eggs of helminths in the municipal raw wastewater of Braunschweig were investigated (Table 1) . At the same time, an attempt has been made to obtain a picture of occurrence of helminths in the population during the years 1980-1983 (Table 2) . We found Ascaris the most frequent in the wastewater but Taenia eggs in stool specimens of human beings . Possible causes of the helminthism and resulting consequences are discussed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Jun, 47(6), 1311 - 5
Simultaneous concentration of four enteroviruses from tap, waste, and natural waters; Guttman-Bass N et al.; The efficiency of virus recovery from water was investigated by using a method which enabled the concentration of a mixture of four enteroviruses with determination of their individual recovery efficiencies . The four viruses used (poliovirus 1, coxsackievirus A9, coxsackievirus B1, and echovirus 7) represented each of the four major subgroups of enteroviruses . This method, which was based on selective antibody neutralization, was used to investigate the effects of input water quality on enterovirus concentration by Balston filters (grade C; Balston, Inc., Lexington, Mass.) and organic flocculation . With tap water, the average recovery efficiency of the four viruses was 97% . Concentration from natural waters, including samples from two lakes (Lake Kinneret and the Hula Nature Reserve) and the Mediterranean Sea, resulted in similarly high average recovery efficiencies . Echovirus 7 was recovered with a slightly lower average efficiency from these types of water than were the other viruses . In comparison with other types of water, virus concentration from Jerusalem wastewater generally had a slightly lower efficiency of recovery, ranging from 63 to 75% for each of the viruses, with an overall average of 68% . The ability of each concentration step, membrane filtration or organic flocculation, to recover the viruses from water was assayed . For the filtration step, although there were not large differences in virus recoveries from tap water, echovirus 7 was recovered with the lowest efficiency (72%), and poliovirus 1 was recovered with the highest (87%) efficiency . Overall virus recovery by the filtration step was least efficient for wastewater (73%) and most efficient for seawater (107%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 May, 47(5), 989 - 92
Comparison of microporous filters for concentration of viruses from wastewater; Rose JB et al.; The 1-MDS Virosorb filter and the 50S and 30S Zeta-plus filters, all with a net positive charge, were compared with the negatively charged Filterite filter for concentration of naturally occurring coliphages and animal viruses from sewage effluent . When Filterite filters were used, the effluent was adjusted to pH 3.5 and AlCl3 was added before filtration to facilitate virus adsorption . No adjustment was required with the positively charged filters . Sets of each filter type were eluted with 3% beef extract (pH 9.5) or eluted with 0.05 M glycine (pH 11.5) . A maximum volume of 19 liters could be passed through 142-mm diameter Filterite filters before clogging, whereas only 11, 11, and 15 liters could be passed through the 1-MDS, 50S, and 30S filters, respectively . For equal volumes passed through the filters, coliphage recoveries were 14, 15, 18, and 37% in primary effluent and 40, 97, 50, and 46% in secondary effluent for the Filterite , 1-MDS, 50S, and 30S filters, respectively . No statistically significant difference was observed in the recovery of animal viruses among the filters from secondary effluent, whereas in the Filterite and 50S filters, higher numbers of viruses from primary effluent were recovered than in the 1-MDS and 30S filters in two of three collections . Glycine was found to be a less-efficient eluent than beef extract in the recovery of naturally occurring viruses.

J Occup Med, 1984 Apr, 26(4), 273 - 5
Enteric parasites in workers occupationally exposed to sewage; Clark CS et al.; To determine if parasitic infections occur more frequently among workers exposed to wastewater than among controls, parasitologic examinations were performed on stool specimens collected over a 12-month period from sewer and highway maintenance workers . Three of 56 sewer maintenance workers (5.4%) had at least one positive specimen compared with 10 of 69 highway workers (14.5%) . The highest rate was found among highway workers engaged in street cleaning . Contrary to studies conducted outside the United States, the present study does not indicate that parasitic infections occur more frequently among sewer workers than among controls in the urban midwestern United States . The results of this study indicate that there may be a risk of parasitic infections among street cleaners.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Mar, 47(3), 519 - 25
Use of 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and electron microscopy to study phosphorus metabolism of microorganisms from wastewaters; Florentz M et al.; We used 31P nuclear magentic resonance to study the transfer of phosphorus between Pis and polyphosphates in microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment . We showed that the transfer process is reversible and of the first order in accordance with the polyphosphate concentration . The presence of nitrates in the anoxic phase led to results similar to those obtained during the aerobic phase . (Anoxic implies absence of oxygen but presence of nitrate, whereas anaerobic implies absence of oxygen and nitrate . In bacteriology, the term anoxic is not common, and the term anaerobic implies absence of oxygen and includes the conditions under which nitrate is present.) We observed that carbon dioxide lowers the pH, which entails a hydrolysis of polyphosphates, and helium seems to stop the evolution of the cells . Further, 2,4-dinitrophenol decouples the oxidative phosphorylation and brings about a decrease in the polyphosphate pool.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1984 Feb, 8(1), 80 - 96
Use of a mixed algal culture to characterize industrial wastewaters; Claesson A; A mixture of five freshwater algae was cultivated with additions of wastewater samples from chemical, mining, polyvinylchloride, textile, paper mill, and oil refinery industries . Two water samples from chemical industries and one from an oil refinery stimulated the algal growth in a nutrient-poor medium, while growth in other samples, including a nutrient-rich medium, was inhibited in several different ways . For eight of the water samples a delayed growth of 2-4 days was noted . Decreased growth rate and lowered maximal biomass occurred in seven of the samples . The photosynthetic capacity of the algal cells was measured by using in vivo fluorescence of chlorophyll a . These quick measurements mostly agreed with those of the growth rates . When the species composition of the mixed algal culture was investigated, large differences in sensitivities between the different species were found . Stimulation or inhibition were observed in the same sample for different species but also for the same species at different concentrations.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Feb, 47(2), 409 - 15
Penetration of different human pathogenic viruses into sand columns percolated with distilled water, groundwater, or wastewater; Dizer H et al.; The adsorption of several enteroviruses and rotavirus SA11 to sand from an aquifer in the Federal Republic of Germany was estimated in sand-filled columns loaded with ca . 10(7) PFU and run at a velocity of 2.5 m/day for 12 h . After either distilled water, groundwater, secondary effluent, or tertiary effluent was percolated, the sand core was slowly extruded out of the column and cut in 1-cm slices . The slices were eluted with nutrient broth, and the amount of viruses in the broth was estimated . The best adsorption was promoted by groundwater and tertiary effluent, followed by distilled water and secondary effluent . Similar experiments, carried out at different percolation rates, indicated that a 50-day underground stay of recharged water probably suffices to eliminate viruses in the groundwater-recharged tertiary effluent . However, when viruses and sand were incubated in the presence of the surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate, nonyl phenol, dodigen 226, or alkylbenzylsulfonate, the adsorption of the viruses was substantially diminished . Experiments in the presence of nonyl phenol seem to indicate that hydrophobic interactions are involved in the adsorption of viruses to sand.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Feb, 47(2), 378 - 80
Trypsin-treated Ma-104: a sensitive cell line for isolating enteric viruses from environmental samples; Agbalika F et al.; During a 1-year survey of enteroviruses in wastewater samples from the Lorraine area, three widely used continuous monkey kidney cell lines were tested: BGM, Vero, and trypsin-treated Ma-104 . Decontaminated samples from secondary wastewater treatment plants (influent or effluent) were directly inoculated onto cells, and viruses were revealed after two passages with a liquid medium technique . Out of the total percentage of positive isolates with the three systems (32.7) 24.7% were found with Ma-104, 14.1% with BGM, and only 1.7% with Vero cells . Poliovirus was recovered more frequently with Ma-104 (12.3%) than with BGM (1.7%) . Reovirus (3.5%) and echovirus (1.7%) were only found with Ma-104 cells; however, BGM cells allowed the isolation of a few group B coxsackieviruses (5.9%) . It must be pointed out that 7.0% of samples with an unconfirmed cytopathic effect were found with BGM against 3.4% found with Ma-104, but they did not have significant differences . Because of its large spectrum of sensitivity, easy maintenance, and resistance to toxic effects, trypsin-treated Ma-104 may be recommended in conjunction with other cell lines for the detection of viruses from environmental samples, especially with the use of a liquid method.

Sci Total Environ, 1984 Jan 27, 32(3), 353 - 63
Epidemiologic monitoring of possible health reactions of wastewater reuse; Frerichs RR; The possible health effects of consuming groundwater partially recharged with recycled wastewater were monitored in a long-term study of residents of several communities in eastern Los Angeles County, California . In three phases of ecologic studies, health measures were compared among residents of two recycled water areas (high and low concentration) and two control areas . Included were measures of mortality, reportable illnesses, adverse birth outcomes, and incident cases of cancer . While significant differences were noted among the four study areas when comparing several health outcomes, none of the differences were in a direction to suggest a dose-response relationship between reclaimed water consumption and disease . To supplement findings of the ecologic studies, a household survey was conducted of approximately 2,500 women, half residing in the high recycled water area and half in the control area . The survey provided increased information on reproductive outcomes and on excess effects after controlling for important potential confounding factors such as cigarette use and alcohol consumption . The results of both the ecologic studies and the household survey provide no indication that recycled water has a noticeable harmful effect on the health of a population exposed for nearly two decades.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1984 Jan, 47(1), 61 - 7
Adhesion of a Mycobacterium sp . to cellulose diacetate membranes used in reverse osmosis; Ridgway HF et al.; The kinetics of adhesion of a Mycobacterium sp . to cellulose diacetate reverse-osmosis membranes is described . This Mycobacterium sp . (strain BT2-4) was previously implicated in the initial stages of reverse-osmosis membrane biofouling at a wastewater reclamation facility . Adhesion of BT2-4 cells to the cellulose diacetate membrane surfaces occurred within 1 to 2 h at 30 degrees C and exhibited saturation-type kinetics which conformed closely to the Langmuir adsorption isotherm (Pearson r correlation coefficient = 0.977), a mathematical expression describing the partitioning of substances between a solution and solid-liquid interface . This suggests that the cellulose diacetate membrane surfaces may possess a finite number of available binding sites to which the mycobacteria can adhere . Treatment of the attached mycobacteria with different enzymes suggested that cell surface polypeptides, alpha-1, 4- or alpha-1,6-linked glucan polymers, and carboxyl ester bond-containing substances (possibly peptidoglycolipids) may be involved in mycobacterial adhesion . The possible implication of these findings for reverse-osmosis membrane biofouling are discussed.

J Occup Med, 1984 Jan, 26(1), 41 - 4
Risk of infection associated with a wastewater spray irrigation system used for farming; Linnemann CC Jr et al.; The use of wastewater for agricultural purposes involves the potential risk of infection from microorganisms in the wastewater . The application of partially treated wastewater on farms has been reported in one study to be associated with human illness, but this has not been confirmed . In the present study, workers at a land application system involving low-pressure spray irrigation of corn fields with wastewater were followed through a growing season to determine if they had an increased risk of infection as compared with a control population of the same socioeconomic group who had no direct exposure to wastewater . Enteroviruses were recovered from the wastewater used for irrigation, but not from the air during spraying . There was no increase in clinical illness among the workers and there was no evidence of an increased risk of infection . The workers who seemed at greatest risk, those who cleaned the spray nozzles, had higher antibody levels to one enterovirus, coxsackievirus B5, but acute symptomatic infections with viral excretion were not documented . This study indicates that there is very limited risk of infection among workers using partially treated wastewater for agriculture purposes.

Folia Microbiol (Praha), 1984, 29(2), 170 - 80
The impedance method for monitoring total coliforms in wastewaters . Part II . Results and evaluation; Tenpenny JR et al.; An impedance technique is presented as a method which offers promise as a test for estimating the numbers of total coliform bacteria in wastewaters . The technique reported here has the advantage of being 3-4 times faster than the standard membrane filter method (i.e . 4-7 h, compared with 20-24 h) . The technique shows the disadvantages of (a) being markedly higher in initial cost of instrumentation, (b) being somewhat more expensive in required supplies, and (c) giving results which deviate considerably from the values given by the MF method . A parallel use of the impedance and MF methods when both speed and accuracy are desired may be an appropriate practical compromise.

Folia Microbiol (Praha), 1984, 29(2), 162 - 9
The impedance method for monitoring total coliforms in wastewaters . Part I . Background and methodology; Strauss WM et al.; This paper presents a brief review of the history of the use of conductance and impedance techniques for monitoring bacterial growth and activity . The paper also describes the development of an impedance methodology applicable to the estimation of numbers of total coliform bacteria in domestic sewage and other wastewaters.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1984 Jan, 178(5-6), 522 - 6
Enterovirus types in samples of activated sewage sludge; Wullenweber M et al.; Samples of activated sewage sludge from two different wastewater treatment plants in Lorraine were collected in January and February 1983 . After elution and concentration, virus contents were estimated with the under agar technique, utilizing BGM cells . A total of 436 pfu was counted, and after viral confirmation, 14% (61 isolates) were typed with the serum neutralization test, using the LIM Benyesh-Melnick pools A-O . Most frequently polioviruses (41%) were found, followed by Coxsackie viruses group B (25%), and echoviruses (7%) . Twenty-eight percent of the isolates remained unidentified.

Sabouraudia, 1983 Sep, 21(3), 247 - 50
Isolation of keratinophilic fungi from sewage sludge; Ulfig K et al.; Five mixed samples of sewage sludges from 4 wastewater treatment plants were examined for keratinophilic fungi . Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton terrestre, T . ajelloi, Chrysosporium pannorum, C . keratinophilum and C . pruinosum were recovered.

Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1983 Jul, 44(7), 537 - 41
Airborne bacteria, endotoxin and fungi in dust in poultry and swine confinement buildings; Clark S et al.; Airborne dust in swine and poultry confinements was analyzed to determine concentrations of total and gram-negative bacteria, total fungi, Aspergillus fumigatus and endotoxin . Airborne concentrations of total and gram-negative bacteria in swine and confinement units have been found to be as high as, or higher, than those found in other environments, such as wastewater treatment plants and cotton card rooms, where microbiologically contaminated organic dusts were present . Airborne endotoxin concentrations in the swine units (average 0.12 micrograms/m3) and poultry units (average 0.31 micrograms/m3) were in the range where clinical effects have occurred in other populations . Therefore, health studies of poultry and swine confinement workers with concurrent estimation of the individual daily exposure dose are warranted.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1983 Jul, 46(1), 133 - 9
Reduction of interfering cytotoxicity associated with wastewater sludge concentrates assayed for indigenous enteric viruses; Hurst CJ et al.; Washing, freon extraction, and cationic polyelectrolyte precipitation were compared for their ability to reduce cytotoxicity associated with virus concentrates derived from beef extract eluates of wastewater sludges . Eluates concentrated by hydroextraction were usually much more toxic than those concentrated by organic flocculation . This difference may be due entirely to nondialyzable material naturally present in the beef extract which did not precipitate during flocculation at pH 3.5 . Washing inoculated cell monolayers with saline containing calf serum before the addition of agar overlay media was most effective in reducing cytotoxicity, although it resulted in a greater virus loss, as compared with freon extraction and cationic polyelectrolyte precipitation.

Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 1983 Jun, 3(2), 172 - 7
Physicochemical speciation of toxic fractions of wastewaters; Ramamoorthy S et al.; A physicochemical speciation scheme in tandem with bioassays identified the toxic fractions of the wastewater from a base metal refining and fertilizer complex . The toxic fractions were the leachates from suspended solids, purgeables, and bound metals of the dissolved fraction . Most of the metals were bound to macrosolutes of Mr greater than 30,000 and exchangeable by cation- and weak anion-exchange resins . In contrast, total chromium and surfactants were bound strongly to microsolutes of Mr less than 1500, removable only by strong anion-exchange resin.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1983 Feb, 7(1), 141 - 50
Waste-related cadmium cycle in Switzerland; Keller L et al.; The anthropogenic contribution to the global cadmium flux exceeds natural sources by a factor of three . The most important pathway is the atmosphere; therefore, high cadmium concentrations can be found even in remote areas . On a local level, the increase in cadmium consumption can be observed in increasing concentrations in the soil, plants, and food . The question arises as to what extent the soil-plant-man-waste-soil cycle can be loaded with cadmium in order to function without negative impact on the environment . In Switzerland, 120 tons (t) of cadmium are consumed per year . Of this amount, 25 t end up in municipal solid waste, 3 t in wastewater, and 19 t in precipitation and dry fallout . As a consequence of today's waste management practice (75% incineration, 20% sanitary landfill, 5% composting; 75% of all sewage is purified), the annual input to the soil is 40 t: 18 t concentrated in landfills, 19 t dissipated via the atmosphere, and 3 t directly spread via sewage sludge, compost, and fertilizer on agricultural land . If even distribution were possible, the cadmium content of the soil would theoretically double in 150 years . The accumulation in the soil will increase the cadmium content of plants grown on such a soil . According to a simple model, the level of 3 ppm cadmium in soils should not be surpassed . At such concentrations, plants are likely to contain greater than 0.4 mg Cd/kg, a concentration which can cause toxic effects in long-term experiments . The safe level in food might be even lower . In reality, cadmium is not evenly distributed over Switzerland . According to today's practice, it must be assumed that in only 14 years the use of compost will have enriched soils to such an extent that its cadmium content will prohibit the production of food for human consumption . For sewage sludge, this timespan is 130 years . If heavy metal limits in food are to be observed, the input of such metals to the soil has to be limited . In a steady state, the cadmium input to the soil should be equal to its output via plants, leachate, and erosion . This implies that today's dissipative use of cadmium must be stopped.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1983 Jan, 45(1), 232 - 7
Concentration of coliphage from water and sewage with charge-modified filter aid; Singh SN et al.; Methods of detecting and concentrating animal viruses from large volumes of water and wastewater have experienced rapid development in recent years, but only a few methods are available for the concentration of bacteriophages . The present study describes the use of a charge-modified (Zeta Plus) filter aid (AMF Cuno, Meriden, Conn.) for the concentration of coliphages from large volumes of water and sewage . Coliphages MS-2 and f2 were efficiently adsorbed from water and sewage to the positively charged filter aid . Elution was accomplished with 4% beef extract--0.5 M NaCl adjusted to pH 9.5 . The recovery of f2 from 10- to 20-liter volumes of tap water ranged between 11 and 70%, and the recovery of MS-2 ranged between 43 and 70% . The efficiency of recovery of naturally occurring coliphages from secondarily treated sewage ranged between 16 and 44% . This technique appears to be promising because it requires low-cost equipment (47-mm polypropylene filter housing), is easy to handle, and can filter large volumes of water (greater than or equal to 20 liters) with good recoveries . Filtrations can be conducted at the ambient pH of the water, and the unit cost per filtration (i.e., the cost of filter aid) comes to less than three cents per sampling . The technique could be useful in evaluation of viral water quality, study of ecology and occurrence of phages in natural waters, and isolation of rare phages from natural waters.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1983 Jan, 177(1-2), 127 - 40
{Efficiency of current technics for the isolation of viruses in water}; Schlaak M et al.; In an attempt to evaluate the efficiency of the current methodology for the concentration of viruses from water and wastewater, we have determined the viral concentration in raw sewage using three procedures: a) inoculation of cell cultures directly with the filtered sewage, b) concentration of the viruses from the sewage using nitrocellulose filters at a pH of 3.5 in the presence of AlCl3, followed by elution with Nutrient Broth and inoculation of the cell cultures with the eluant and c) flocculation of the Nutrient Broth after the elution as in b, dissolution of the precipitate in cell medium and inoculation of the cell cultures with this solution . The results show that this concentration procedure with nitrocellulose filters as recommended in the "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater" has an efficiency of 33% if compared with the direct inoculation . In a separate study, we have looked at the properties of electropositive Filters to bind polioviruses Typ I, Strain Lsc 2ab at neutral pH in the absence of salt . These filters, which could be used several times, were able to retain more then 99.5% of the viruses . However, they bound the viruses stronger that nitrocellulose filters and the elution with Nutrient Broth was never complete . After the problems with the elution are solved, these filters promise to simplify substantially the procedure for concentrating viruses from water.

Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, 1983, 31(2), 209 - 21
{Enterovirus circulation in the waste waters of the Lorraine region . Evaluation of a survey 1976-1981}; Agbalika F et al.; A survey of the presence of viruses in wastewater has been conducted during 6 years in 19 treatment plants of the lorraine area . The results presented in this paper show the presence of numerous viral species in the 1938 samples analyzed from 1976 to 1981 and large variations of the annual positivity rate linked to the circulation of enteric viruses in the population . By direct inoculation to cell cultures the search of virus is positive in only 15% of the samples . On the other hand a previous concentration step allows to obtain an increase of positive samples . Taking into account the important aptitudes of polio and non poliovirus to survive in water, the survey of wastewater could be a good indicator of their presence in the population . The isolation of non vaccinal polioviruses confirm the need of the continuation of the vaccination program, but perhaps also a reevaluation of the rule of the living oral vaccine because of the presence of so called "intermediary strains".

Acta Microbiol Pol, 1983, 32(3), 269 - 74
The quality of protein from algae used in the purification of wastewater from the nitrogen fertilizer industry; Miernik A; This paper presents the quantities and amino acid composition of proteins from Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus obliquus and Stichococcus bacillaris used in purification experiments on wastewater from the Nitrogen Fertilizer Factory in Chorzow . The quantities of exogenous amino acids of the investigated algae and "ideal protein" standard of the FAO are compared . The protein from Scenedesmus and Chlorella appeared to be richer in exogenous amino acids than the FAO standard . Stichococcus bacillaris has a lower content of exogenous amino acids but nevertheless has a high content of threonine and lysine, higher than in the other investigated algae.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Nov, 44(5), 1042 - 6
Isolation of indigenous enteroviruses from chemically treated and dewatered sludge samples; Goddard MR et al.; Samples of wastewater sludge were examined for infectious enteroviruses before and after they had been chemically conditioned and dewatered . The least virus was recovered from the cake produced by filter pressing of sludge, which had a greatly increased solids content (39 to 45% {wt/vol}) relative to the untreated sludge (4.2 to 6.2% {wt/vol}) and in one plant was at pH 11 due to the lime conditioner used . Conditioning with a cationic polyelectrolyte before dewatering by centrifugation produced a watery sludge (2.7 to 5.3% {wt/vol}) from which high titers of infectious virus were recovered which were often greater than those isolated from the untreated sludge (0.6 to 1.4% {wt/vol}) . This was thought to be due to saturation of virus and sludge floc adsorption sites by the polyelectrolyte, resulting in the liberation of virions from the sludge solids.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Oct, 44(4), 852 - 9
Adsorption of reovirus by minerals and soils; Moore RS et al.; Adsorption of {35S}methionine-labeled reovirus by 30 dry soils, minerals, and finely ground rocks suspended in synthetic freshwater at pH 7 was investigated to determine the conditions necessary for optimum virus removal during land application of wastewaters . All of the minerals and soils studied were excellent adsorbents of reovirus, with greater than 99% of the virus adsorbed after 1 h at 4 degrees C . Thereafter, virus remaining in suspension was significantly inactivated, and within 24 h a three to five log10 reduction in titer occurred . The presence of divalent cations, i.e., Ca2+ and Mg2+, in synthetic freshwater enhanced removal, whereas soluble organic matter decreased the amount of virus adsorbed in secondary effluent . The amount of virus adsorbed by these substrates was inversely correlated with the amount of organic matter, capacity to adsorb cationic polyelectrolyte, and electrophoretic mobility . Adsorption increased with increasing available surface area, as suspended infectivity was reduced further by the more finely divided substrates . However, the organic content of the soils reduced the level of infectious virus adsorbed below that expected from surface area measurements alone . The inverse correlation between virus adsorption and substrate capacity for cationic polyelectrolyte indicates that the adsorption of infectious reovirus particles is predominately a charged colloidal particle-charged surface interaction . Thus, adsorption of polyelectrolyte may be useful in predicting the fate of viruses during land application of sewage effluents and sludges.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Aug, 44(2), 383 - 94
Fate of virus in wastewater applied to slow-infiltration land treatment systems; Schaub SA et al.; The removal of seeded coliphage f2 and indigenous enteroviruses from primary and secondary wastewaters applied by spray irrigation to sandy loam and silt loam soils in field test cells was examined . The amount of f2 recovered from 170-cm-deep soil percolate samples taken over a 53-day period never exceeded 0.1% of applied virus levels and was usually below detection limits . Indigenous enterovirus levels in percolate waters also constituted only a small portion of those found in the wastewaters . At 10 days after seeding, f2 virus was present throughout the soil column but tended to accumulate around the soil core middepths . Coliphage f2 disappeared from the soil surface regions at a high rate, and by 53 days very little virus could be detected within the length of the soil columns . Sterilized soil core segments from different depths were studied to determine their virus adsorption capabilities when suspended in either wastewater, test cell percolate water, or distilled water containing divalent cations . The adsorptive capacity of Windsor and Charlton soils for poliovirus 1 and coliphage f2 increased greatly with the soil sample depth until leveling off at the midcore depths . Soil suspended in wastewater had the least virus adsorption capability for all depths studied.

Sci Total Environ, 1982 Jun, 24(2), 159 - 75
A "marker" technique to monitor treated industrial wastewater effluents; Bowman MC et al.; In toxicological research with hazardous substances (e.g . carcinogens), wastewater effluent from the test facility must be free of such substances before discharge into the environment . An industrial wastewater processing employing adsorbers of carbon and XAD-2 resin is described; however, chemical assays of each batch of treated effluent must certify the absence of all test agents . Elution profiles and adsorption isotherm tests with the test agents vs . the two adsorbents provided the basis for a "marker" technique which should eliminate the necessity to assay for all test agents in each batch of processed effluent . A radionale is presented for periodic introduction of a "marker" (gentian violet) into the primary adsorbers . If detected in the effluent, the "marker", which elutes from the adsorbers before most of the test agents would signal impending depletion of the adsorbent which could then be replaced . Recommendations to modify the industrial wastewater treatment plant and to implement the "marker" technique are presented as cost-effective alternatives to extensive and laborious chemical assays.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Jun, 43(6), 1413 - 8
Comparison of methods for recovering indigenous viruses from raw wastewater sludge; Brashear DA et al.; Five general methods for recovering indigenous viruses from raw wastewater sludge were compared . Each method included elution, concentration, and disinfection steps . The elution method, found to consistently yield the greatest viral recovery, was a two-phase technique that involved blending sludge with Freon . Other methods, including two being tested as American Society for Testing Materials tentative standard methods, were less effective . Viral recoveries were generally greater (sometimes much greater) if samples were concentrated by high-speed centrifugation rather than by organic flocculation with 3% beef extract . Three cell lines were used to measure viral recoveries by the plaque assay . The efficiency of recovery was greatest on BGM cells, followed by RD and MA-104 cells.

J Toxicol Environ Health, 1982 Apr, 9(4), 545 - 64
Single-dose and repeated-exposure toxicity of a complex wastewater from munitions manufacturing plants; Tyson CA et al.; The single-dose and repeated-exposure toxicity of a synthetic mixture of 30 nitrotoluene analogs, representative of a complex industrial wastewater termed condensate water, was evaluated in dogs, rats, and mice . The single-dose oral LD50s for the synthetic condensate water (CW) were 447 and 295 mg/kg in male and female rats, respectively . In the repeated-exposure studies, dogs were given 0, 0.05, 0.5, or 5 mg of CW per kilogram of body weight by capsule daily for 26 wk . Rats and mice received 0, 0.001, 0.01, or 0.1% of this mixture in their diet for 4 or 13 wk . Groups of each rodent species were set aside for 4 wk to assess recovery . The most notable findings were a compensatory anemia with reticulocytosis (severe in rats), Heinz body formation, and related blood cell abnormalities and hemosiderin in the spleen; pigmentation in the liver cells; atrophy and aspermia in the testes; hyperplasia and inflammation in the female reproductive organs; and neurotoxic signs at the high doses . Rats and mice also experienced food intake and body weight depression and exhibited some alterations in organ weights (spleen, testes, and liver) . The findings were referable principally to the two major components 2,4,- and 2,6-dinitrotoluene, but the "no observable effects" levels were lower for the mixture.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Apr, 43(4), 971 - 4
Isolation of enteroviruses from oxidation pond waters; Sheladia VL et al.; Enteroviruses were isolated from influent and effluent wastewaters of two types of oxidation lagoons during an 18-month study . Isolations, performed by sewage concentration and direct assay, were low in number and did not follow a seasonal trend . The younger treatment system, using aeration and effluent chlorination, was more efficient at removing viruses than the aging, static complex.

Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper, 1982 Mar 15, 58(5), 241 - 5
{The use of Eichornia crassipes for the improvement of some characteristics of water}; Forgione P et al.; Some plants of Eichornia Crassipes were studied in September-January period for the absorption of some cations from wastewaters . In this note was studied the lead, zinc and copper in relation the depurative potential of this plants to 18 degrees C . These metals have identified in the water and in the ashes by atomic absorption . Nowadays our researches, are intented at to study the depurative potential of Eichornia Crassipes and others aquatic plants in presence of multiple cations.

Arch Environ Contam Toxicol, 1982, 11(1), 123 - 7
Petroleum refinery wastewater induction of the hepatic mixed-function oxidase system in Pacific staghorn sculpin; Ridlington JW et al.; Induction of hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450 and aldrin epoxidase was observed in the estuarine sculpin (Leptocottus armatus), following in vivo exposure to Class B petroleum refinery effluent from two West Coast refineries . The data demonstrate the presence and inducibility of the mixed-function oxidase system in Leptocottus armatus . Differences in the extent of mixed-function oxidase induction between the two effluents may be related to differences in wastewater chemistry.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1982 Jan, 43(1), 28 - 38
Comparison of coliphage and bacterial aerosols at a wastewater spray irrigation site; Bausum HT et al.; Microbiological aerosols were measured on a spray irrigation site at Fort Huachuca, Ariz . Indigenous bacteria and tracer bacteriophage were sampled from sprays of chlorinated and unchlorinated secondary-treatment wastewaters during day and night periods . Aerosol dispersal and downwind migration were determined . Bacterial and coliphage f2 aerosols were sampled by using Andersen viable type stacked-sieve and high-volume electrostatic precipitator samplers . Bacterial standard plate counts averaged 2.4 x 10(5) colony-forming units per ml in unchlorinated effluents . Bacterial aerosols reached 500 bacteria per m3 at 152 m downwind and 10,500 bacteria per m3 at 46m . Seeded coliphage f2 averaged 4.0 x 10(5) plaque-forming units per ml in the effluent and were detected 563 m downwind . Downwind microbial aerosol levels were somewhat enhanced by nighttime conditions . The median aerodynamic particle size of the microbial aerosols was approximately 5.0 micrometer . Chlorination reduced wastewater bacterial levels 99.97% and reduced aerosol concentrations to near background levels; coliphage f2 was reduced only 95.4% in the chlorinated effluent and was readily measured 137 m downwind . Microbiological source strength an meteorological data were used in conjunction with a dispersion model to generate mathematical predictions of aerosol strength at various sampler locations . The mean calculated survival of aerosolized bacteria (standard plate count) in the range 46 to 76 m downwind was 5.2%, and that of coliphage f2 was 4.3 %.

Comp Biochem Physiol C, 1982, 71C(1), 63 - 7
Effects of petroleum refinery wastewater exposure on gill ATPase and selected blood parameters in the Pacific staghorn sculpin (leptocottus armatus); Boese BL et al.; 1 . The effects of in vivo exposure to various concentrations of petroleum refinery wastewater on gill ATPase, plasma protein, plasma osmolarity, and hematocrit were measured in the euryhaline fish, Leptocottus armatus . 2 . The extent of the reduction in Na,K-ATPase activity resulting from the exposure to the two refineries wastewaters may be related to wastewater chemical composition . 3 . Changes in the blood chemistry parameters did not follow a consistent or easily explainable pattern.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Sep, 42(3), 469 - 76
Inactivation of poliovirus by chloramine-T; Gowda NM et al.; Since concern has recently been expressed about the presence of genotoxic substances due to chlorination of water and wastewater, chloramine-T (CAT) is proposed as an alternative disinfectant to chlorine . The viricidal properties of chlorine and CAT were compared . Kinetics of inactivation of poliovirus type 2 by chlorine and CAT in chlorine demand-free water were investigated by using a kinetic apparatus . Inactivation of the virus by chlorine and CAT occurred in two steps . The initial linear part of the inactivation curve followed a pseudo-first-order reaction with the virus . An obvious dose-response relationship was demonstrated with CAT . The rate of inactivation of the virus by CAT was faster in acid medium than in alkaline medium . Inactivation kinetic studies were performed at different temperatures, and the kinetic, Arrhenius, and thermodynamic parameters were evaluated . The rate of inactivation of poliovirus type 2 by chlorine was faster than that by CAT under identical conditions . A mechanism for the viral inactivation in acid conditions was proposed which led to a rate equation consistent with the experimental results . The results indicate that CAT may be an effective viricide against poliovirus type 2 in an acid medium.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Jul, 42(1), 83 - 8
Effect of soil permeability on virus removal through soil columns; Wang DS et al.; Laboratory experiments were performed on four different soils, using 100 cm long columns, to determine the extent of virus movement when wastewater percolated through the soils at various hydraulic flow rates . Unchlorinated secondary sewage effluent seeded with either poliovirus type 1 (strain LSc) or echovirus type 1 (isolate V239) was continuously applied to soil columns for 3 to 4 days at constant flow rates . Water samples were extracted daily from ceramic samplers at various depths of the column for the virus assay . The effectiveness of virus removal from wastewater varied greatly among the different soil types but appeared to be largely related to hydraulic flow rates . At a flow rate of 33 cm/day, Anthony sandy loam removed 99% of seeded poliovirus within the first 7 cm of the column . At flow rates of 300 cm/day and above, Rubicon sand gave the poorest removal of viruses; less than 90% of the seeded viruses were removed by passage of effluent through the entire length of the soil column . By linear regression analyses, the rate of virus removal in soil columns was found to be negatively correlated with the flow of the percolating sewage effluent . There was no significant difference in rate of removal between poliovirus and echovirus in soil columns 87 cm long . The rate of virus removal in the upper 17 cm of the soil column was found to be significantly greater than in the lower depths of the soil column . This study suggests that the flow rate of water through the soil may be the most important factor in predicting the potential of virus movement into the groundwater . Furthermore, the length of the soil column is critical in obtaining useful data to predict virus movement into groundwater.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 May, 41(5), 1139 - 43
Distribution of ribonucleic acid coliphages in raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan; Furuse K et al.; To determine the transmission cycle of ribonucleic acid (RNA) coliphages in their natural habitats, we investigated the distribution patterns of RNA phages in raw sewage collected from treatment plants in various localities in Japan . Most of the sewage samples contained group II and III phages . Samples from treatment plants in Sapporo, Tokyo, and Toyama contained appreciable amounts of group I phages in addition to the group II and III phages . As a whole, raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan contained RNA phages of the three groups in the ratio 1:2:5, group I/II/III . Based on the distribution patterns of RNA phages in sewage from domestic drainage in Japan proper (group II/III, 3:1), in animal feces and sewage from slaughter houses (mostly group I), and in human feces (group II/III, 1:1), it can be reasonably said that group I phages tend to be introduced from animal sources and group II and III phages tend to be introduced from human sources . Raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan consists mainly of human feces, sewage from domestic drainage, and industrial wastewater, and, in part, from slaughter houses . In fact, sewage from slaughter houses together with that from human sources flowed into the treatment plants of Tokyo as far as we could confirm.

J Assoc Off Anal Chem, 1981 May, 64(3), 653 - 6
Gas chromatographic--mass spectrometric determination of volatile organic compounds in fish; Easley DM et al.; A technique has been developed for the determination of volatile organic compounds in fish . The methodology is based on procedures used to determine purgeable organic compounds in water and wastewater . Fish tissue is added to reagent water, cooled in an ice bath, and homogenized with cell disruption using ultrasonic energy . The processed sample is then analyzed by a purge and trap procedure using an impinger-type device at 70 degrees C, with determination of the purged compounds by computerized gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . Both ground fish and cored fish specimens were successfully analyzed by this technique . The overall average recovery for 39 volatile compounds studied was 77% with an average standard deviation of 20%.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Feb, 41(2), 455 - 8
Urea-lysine method for recovery of enteroviruses from sludge; Farrah SR et al.; Enteroviruses added to sludge and indigenous viruses present in sludge were recovered by treating the sludge flocs with a 4 M urea solution buffered at pH 9 with 0.5 M lysine . Eluted viruses were absorbed to aluminum hydroxide flocs and collected by centrifugation . The flocs were solubilized with 0.1 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-3% beef extract at pH 9 . After dialysis to remove the ethylenediaminetraacetic acid, viruses were further concentrated by organic flocculation . Approximately 40% of poliovirus and coxsackievirus B-3 added to 500 to 1,000 ml of sludge could be recovered in final sample volumes of less than 10 ml . Polioviruses, echoviruses, and coxsackieviruses were recovered from different samples of wastewater sludge.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Jan, 41(1), 93 - 6
Recovery of coliphages from wastewater effluents and polluted lake water by the magnetite-organic flocculation method; Bitton G et al.; A magnetite-organic flocculation method was developed for the concentration of coliphages from wastewater effluents and polluted lake water . A high percent (68 to 100%) recovery of coliphages from sewage effluents was achieved by this procedure . Coliphage recovery from Lake Alice, a sewage-contaminated lake, showed phage concentrations ranging from 2.3 X 10(2) to 1.9 X 10(3) plaque-forming units per liter . This method is simple and inexpensive and may be carried out under field conditions.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1981 Jan, 41(1), 139 - 47
Virus removal during groundwater recharge: effects of infiltration rate on adsorption of poliovirus to soil; Vaughn JM et al.; Studies were conducted to determine the influence of infiltration rate on poliovirus removal during groundwater recharge with tertiary-treated wastewater effluents . Experiments were conducted at a uniquely designed, field-situated test recharge basin facility through which some 62,000 m3 of sewage had been previously applied . Recharge at high infiltration rates (75 to 100 cm/h) resulted in the movement of considerable numbers of seeded poliovirus to the groundwater . Moderately reduced infiltration rates (6 cm/h) affected significantly improved virus removal . Very low infiltration rates (0.5 to 1.0 cm/h), achieved by partial clogging of the test basin, yielded the greatest virus removal efficiencies.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Dec, 40(6), 1067 - 79
Effects of environmental variables and soil characteristics on virus survival in soil; Hurst CJ et al.; Because of the increasing emphasis placed upon land application as a means of wastewater disposal, it is important to evaluate the influences of different factors upon virus survival in soil . The objective of this study was to measure the effects of various environmental variables on virus persistence . Test samples of soil were placed in vials, and the soil was wetted with suspensions of virus in either distilled water, unchlorinated secondary sewage effluent, or mixtures of effluent and water . The viruses used were coxsackieviruses A9 and B3, echovirus 1, poliovirus 2, rotavirus SA11, and bacteriophages T2 and MS2 . The rate of virus inactivation was evaluated statistically with regard to conditions under which the vials were incubated and to the soil characteristics . The factors that were found to influence virus survival were temperature, soil moisture content, presence of aerobic microorganisms, degree of virus adsorption to the soil, soil levels of resin-extractable phosphorus, exchangeable aluminium, and soil pH . Overall, temperature and virus adsorption to soil appeared to be the most important factors affecting virus survival.

Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper, 1980 Oct 30, 56(20), 2145 - 50
{Utilization of Eichornia crassipes to improve certain characteristics of water (preliminary note)}; Forgione P et al.; Some plants of Eichornia Crassipes were studied in the November-January period for the absorption of some cations from wastewaters . In this preliminary note was studied the lead in relation to the depurative potential of this plants to 18 degrees and 25 degrees C . This metal have identified in the water and in the ashes by atomic-absorption . Nowadays our researches are intended to study the depurative potential of Eichornia Crassipes and others aquatic plants in presence of multiple cations.

J Chromatogr Sci, 1980 Aug, 18(8), 370 - 4
Determination of benzidine and 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine in wastewater by liquid chromatography with uv and electrochemical detection; Armentrout DN et al.; The title compounds are on the EPA priority pollutant list . Therefore, a sensitive method for their measurement is required . The liquid chromatographic method employs a LiChrosorb RP-2 column, 45% acetonitrile (pH 5) mobile phase, UV detection at 280 nm, and electrochemical detection at +0.70 volts applied potential . The three-electrode electrochemical cell described contains a tubular carbon-black/polyethylene working electrode that permits detection of sub-part-per-billion levels in a 50 microliter injection permits detection of 2 ppb benzidine and dichlorobenzidine . Recoveries from fortified wastewater of benzidine at 1 to 6 ppb and dichlorobenzidine at 3 to 12 ppb levels were 83% and 87%, respectively.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Aug, 40(2), 192 - 200
Survival of enteroviruses in rapid-infiltration basins during the land application of wastewater; Hurst CJ et al.; The downward migration through soil of seeded poliovirus type 1 and echovirus type 1 and of naturally occurring enteroviruses during infiltration of sewage effluent through rapid-infiltration basins was investigated . After 5 days of flooding, the amount of seeded poliovirus type 1 that had migrated 5 to 10 cm downward through the soil profile was found to be 11% of that remaining at the initial burial depth . The amount of echovirus type 1 determined to have moved an equal distance was at least 100-fold less . Migration of naturally occurring enteroviruses during infiltration of sewage effluent through soil could not be measured with accuracy because of the possibility of virus survival from previous applications of effluent . The rate of inactivation for seeded poliovirus 1 and echovirus 1 buried in the infiltration basins ranged between 0.04 and 0.15 log10 units per day during the time when the basins were flooded . Inactivation of these same seeded virus types and of indigenous enterovirus populations in the infiltration basins during the drying portion of the sewage application cycle ranged between 0.11 and 0.52 log10 units per day . The rate of virus inactivation was dependent upon the rate of soil moisture loss . These results indicate that drying cycles during the land application of wastewater enhance virus inactivation in the soil.

Virologie, 1980 Jul-Sep, 31(3), 187 - 89
Prevalence of antiviral antibodies in workers handling wastewater and sludge; Iftimovici R et al.; Serological investigations were performed between 1977-1978 with 972 serum samples from 243 subjects having either direct (group A) or sporadic (group B) occupational contact with wastewater or sludge . the control group (C) was represented by 100 persons having no contact with such material . The sera were tested against influenza, parainfluenza, adeno-, herpes, coronavirus, rickettsial and chlamydial antigens, as well as for the presence of HBsAg and anti-HBs . Statistically significant differences between group A and groups B and C were found as regards the prevalence of antibodies to adenovirus and parainfluenza virus type 1 antigens.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Jun, 39(6), 1191 - 7
Die-away kinetics of aerosolized bacteria from sprinkler application of wastewater; Teltsch B et al.; A methodology for estimating, under field conditions, the microbial die-away constant (lambda) is presented . This constant may be used in predicting the aerosolized pathogenic microorganism concentrations downwind from a wastewater spray or aeration site by means of modified atmospheric diffusion equations . The mean lambda of Escherichia coli for very early morning runs was 8.8 X 10(-3)s-1, and that for afternoon runs was 6.6 X 10(-2)s-1.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Jun, 39(6), 1154 - 8
Effects of wastewater sludge and its detergents on the stability of rotavirus; Ward RL et al.; Wastewater sludge reduced the heat required to inactivate rotavirus SA-11, and ionic detergents were identified as the sludge components responsible for this effect . A similar result was found previously with reovirus (R . L . Ward and C . S . Ashley, Appl . Environ . Microbiol 36:889-897, 1978) . The quantitative effects of individual ionic detergents on rotavirus and reovirus were very different, and rotavirus was found to be extremely sensitive to several of these detergents . However, neither virus was destabilized by nonionic detergents . On the contrary, rotavirus was stabilized by a nonionic detergent against the potent destabilizing effects of the ionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate . The destabilizing effects of both cationic and anionic detergents on rotavirus were greatly altered by changes in the pH of the medium.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {B}, 1980 Mar, 170(3-4), 337 - 41
{Hygienic problems of slaughterhouse wastewaters (author's transl)}; Rosocha J et al.; Physical, chemical and bacterial qualities of total wastewaters from slaughterhouse and meat processing plants and individual departments has been followed . Obtained results are indicating the significance of wastewaters in contamination of living environment and stressing the importance of their treatment.

J Hyg (Lond), 1980 Feb, 84(1), 63 - 9
Inactivation of viruses in municipal effluent by chlorine; Hajenian HG et al.; The influence of pH and temperature on the efficiency of chlorine inactivation of two unrelated picornaviruses in a typical urban wastewater effluent was examined . Temperature, unlike pH, had relatively little effect on the rate of inactivation . The pH effect was complex and the two viruses differed . The f2 coliphage was more sensitive to chlorine at low pH, but at all values there was a threshold above which additional chlorine resulted in very rapid inactivation . The amount of chlorine required for this was less at low than at high pH, although at pH values above 7 the extent of inactivation was about the same . There was no apparent correlation between pH and rate of inactivation of poliovirus but there was a suggestion that at a pH close to the isoelectric point of the virus it was less sensitive to chlorination.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg {B}, 1980, 171(6), 497 - 511
{Studies on factors limiting self-purification of water . I . Experimental studies on the effects of degradable and of toxic substances on the ways of microbial self-purification of water (author's transl)}; Schubert RH; The results of the present studies indicate that the inhibition of bacterial growth caused by discharge of toxic substances into water receiving wastewater of directly into wastewater cannot serve as a mechanism inhibiting degradation below the toxic threshold of the depression of oxygen consumption i.e . as determined by BOD . Therefore, this discharge-caused inhibition also does not explain the residues of degradable substances normally found . Observations were made on degradation in the laboratory using a model with creatinine as substrate and P . putida as microorganism . It was found that even "physiologic" and therefore, easily degradable substances as well as subtoxic concentrations of toxic substances (measured against a determined minimal concentration causing inhibition) if discharged into water receiving wastewater or into wastewater will interfere with the degradation of specific wastes (creatinine) . The delayed and/or incomplete degradations in our model led to a formation of persisting residual concentrations of the waste substances introduced into the system . It is rather unlikely that such residuals will actually emerge in running water under natural conditions, because here the specific (creatinine) degrading organisms will invariably revert from the stationary phase to a renewed active phase (of exponential growth) whenever the system receives other discharges or even is diluted by other discharges . In their active phase the mixed populations of bacteria formed in nature will almost certainly completely metabolize whatever may left of degradable wastes (creatinine) . The mere fact that the time needed for degradation can be lengthened so considerably by interfering "physiological" yet degradable substances as well as by subtoxic concentrations of toxins, offers an explanation for the degradability measured immanentally in defined time-intervals within the BODx taken as a measure of degradable "residual wastes" i.e . substances which are biologically degradable but are not degraded.

Arch Environ Contam Toxicol, 1980, 9(5), 557 - 68
Acute and embryo-larval toxicity of phenolic compounds to aquatic biota; DeGraeve GM et al.; Because of the prevalence of phenolic compounds in various types of effluents, both acute and embryo-larval bioassays were performed on eight phenolic compounds with rainbow trout, fathead minnows and Daphnia pulicaria . In flow-through bioassays, the 96-hr LC50 values for rainbow trout and fathead minnows ranged from < 0.1 mg/L for hydroquinone to > 100 mg/L for resorcinol . Daphnia pulicaria was consistently the least sensitive species tested as measured in 48-hr bioassays, while fathead minnows and rainbow trout varied in their relative sensitivity to phenolics as measured in 96-hr tests . Fathead minnows were more sensitive to phenol at 25 degrees C than at 14 degrees C . In embryo-larval bioassays with phenol, fathead minnow growth was significantly reduced by 2.5 mg/L phenol, while rainbow trout growth was significantly reduced by 0.20 mg/L phenol . For both species the embryo-larval effects concentration was 1.1% of the 96-hr LC50 . Another embryo-larval bioassay was attempted with p-benzoquinone, a highly toxic phenolic compound found in fossil fuel processing wastewaters, which was discontinued because the compound was rapidly degraded chemically or biologically in the headtank and aquaria.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Jan, 39(1), 85 - 91
Concentration of coliphages from large volumes of water and wastewater; Goyal SM et al.; Membrane filter adsorption-elution technology has been extensively used for the concentration and detection of animal viruses from large volumes of water . This study describes the development of positively charged microporous filters (Zeta Plus) for the concentration of coliphages from large volumes of water and wastewater . Four different coliphages were studied: MS-2, phi X174, T2, and T4 . Positively charged microporous filters were found to efficiently adsorb these coliphages from tap water, sewage, and lake water at neutral pH . Adsorbed viruses were eluted with a 1:1 mixture of 8% beef extract and 1 M sodium chloride at pH 9 . Using this method, coliphages could be concentrated from 17-liter volumes of tap water with recoveries ranging from 34 to 100% . Coliphages occurring naturally in raw and secondarily treated sewage were recovered with average efficiencies of 56.5 and 55.0%, respectively . This method should be useful in isolation of rare phages, the ecology of phages in natural waters, and the evaluation of water quality.

IARC Sci Publ, 1980, (31), 377 - 87
Comparison of analyses of wastewaters for N-nitrosamines using various detectors; Rhoades JW et al.; Three GC detectors, the AFID, the TEA and the Hall (pyrolytic mode), were evaluated for the monitoring of wastewaters for NDMA, NDPA and NDPhA . All three detectors were adequate for NDMA and NDPA determinations . Due to its thermal lability, NDPhA has to be determined indirectly as its degradation product, DPhA, using the AFID . A column clean-up method for removing DPhA from samples prior to GC analysis is described . Since both the TEA and the Hall (pyrolytic mode) detectors utilize pyrolysis after gas chromatography, they are not satisfactory for NDPhA monitoring . Wastewater analysis using all three detectors gave comparable data; however, the lack of nitrosamine selectivity in the AFID requires both that the sample undergo an initial clean-up and a longer GC bake-off time . It is also noted that the Hall detector used in the pyrolytic mode may offer some advantages for routine nitrosamine monitoring; and is less restricted in its utility than the TEA.

Rev Inst Hyg Mines (Hasselt), 1980, 35(1), 17 - 33
{Clean water . What are the Kempische Steenkoolmijnen doing for this?}; Michiels J; Social obligations about the environment have always been a point of major concern at the N.V . Kempense Steenkoolenmijnen; so the company could not ignore environmental standards and existing regulations . This paper focusses attention on the importance of clean water for human health and civilization . Natural water occurs as rainwater, groundwater, surface water and seawater . Waterpollution, its measurement and the possible sources of this pollution are briefly discussed . Attention is also paid to existing regulations which implicate the introduction of discharge conditions . The N.V . Kempense Steenkoolenmijnen can't deny being a polluter . The company produces five types of wastewater, which are discharged into several surface waters . This is a specific contamination containing salts and coal particles . Flow rates are high but variable . To fight this pollution the N.V . Kempense Steenkoolenmijnen has worked out an investment program for each of its five collieries . The treatment of wastewater at a settling basin of the Zolder-colliery is described as an example.

Zentralbl Bakteriol Naturwiss, 1980, 135(2), 185 - 91
{Possibilities of using nitrogen-containing waste products for cultivation of Candida utilis . I . Communication: the use of piacryl-waste sulphuric acid}; Konstantinova R et al.; Piacryl-waste sulphuric acid and ammonia-urea wastewaters, nitrogen-containing products of chemical industry, have been used for cultivation of Candida utilis . In our investigations, piacryl-waste sulphuric acid proved to be of special interest . The possibilities of using waste sulphuric acid during the cultivation of fodder yeast as well as in clarified and unclarified sugar beet molasses are discussed regarding the cell yields and the crude- and true protein content at various dilution rates in chemostat culture.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980 Jan, 39(1), 127 - 34
Evaluation of the overland runoff mode of land wastewater treatment for virus removal; Schaub SA et al.; The removal of enteric and tracer viruses by the overland runoff mode of domestic wastewater treatment was evaluated . Raw and primary and secondary treated wastewaters were sprayed onto grass-covered, 36-m soil plots of fine, sandy loam overlying an impermeable clay subsoil . Tracer bacteriophage f2 was seeded into the applied wastewaters, which were subsequently sampled at several points along the length of the plots . Assay of effluent samples revealed modest tracer virus removals of 30 to 60% . Data from timed experiments indicated that advancement of tracer virus to the bottom of the slopes proceeded at the same rate as wastewater, reaching the plot effluents within 50 to 90 min after application . Indigenous enteric virus levels were reduced by approximately 68 to 85% during migration down the treatment slopes . Soil sampling revealed that, although some f2 virus was found associated with the wastewater-saturated topsoil, little penetration of virus into the soil profile occurred . Laboratory soil adsorption studies revealed that poliovirus I was adsorbed much more readily than f2 virus . Comparison of virus removal characteristics during overland runoff with chemical removal characteristics of wastewater did not reveal any obvious correlations that could be used to predict virus removal.

Clin Toxicol, 1979 Dec, 15(5), 583 - 95
Control of test substances; Bowman MC; The efficient control of chemicals during a nonclinical laboratory study is of the utmost importance from three main points of view: (1) integrity of the experiment, (2) safety of personnel, and (3) protection of the environment . While the general principles involved in chemical control may be set forth in formal GLPs, detailed problems concerning individual test substances can only be resolved by utilizing the competency and judgment of a researcher who possesses adequate analytical chemical methods . Integrity of an experiment requires knowledge of the identity, purity, and stability of the test substance, as well as its proper handling and storage and a knowledge of its chemical properties . Assurance of homogeneity, stability, and proper concentration of the chemical in the dosage form is also of primary importance . The development and use of adequate analytical chemical procedures for determining the test agent in human samples, air, clothing, and on work surfaces is necessary for the initiation of surveillance procedures to assure safety of personnel from exposure to the test substances . The environment must be protected from hazardous test substances by using adequate disposal techniques for the chemical and all contaminated materials . This usually involves development of wastewater cleanup systems and continuous monitoring of the effluent to prevent discharge of hazardous substances . Incineration is the most useful method for disposal of solids and highly contaminated liquids . Work from our laboratory, done during the past 5 years, provides an illustration of the important principles, problems, and pitfalls encountered in chemical control.

Biotechnol Bioeng, 1979 Dec, 21(12), 2247 - 61
Hydrolysis of organophosphate insecticides by an immobilized-enzyme system; Munnecke DM; An enzyme preparation that could detoxify parathion and eight other organophosphate pesticides was covalently bound to either porous glass or porous silica beads . This immobilized-enzyme system was examined for its use in detoxification of pesticides in production wastewaters . The kinetics of parathion hydrolysis were examined at flow rates up to 96 liter/hr and at influent substrate concentrations ranging from 10--250 mg/liter . The enzyme reactor was able to hydrolyze 95% or more of the parathion added to industrial wastewaters generated during its production, thus reducing the effluent parathion concentration to below 500 ppb . Laboratory continuous-flow experiments were conducted for 70 days with industrial wastewater and indicated no loss in immobilized-enzyme activity . The influence of pH, temperature, solvents, and detergents on enzyme stability and activity and enzyme reactor kinetics will be discussed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1979 Nov, 38(5), 980 - 6
Viral aggregation: mixed suspensions of poliovirus and reovirus; Floyd R; The aggregation of mixtures of two dissimilar viruses, poliovirus I (Mahoney) and reovirus III (Dearing), was followed by electron microscopy under conditions known to induce either aggregation or dispersion of each virus separately . Neither virus aggregated at pH 7 in an appropriate buffer, and no mixed aggregates were formed . Under conditions of lowered ionic strength (by dilution into distilled water) poliovirus became aggregated, whereas reovirus did not, and again no mixed aggregates were formed . At pH 6, however, poliovirus again aggregated and, although reovirus did not, it attached to poliovirus aggregates . Thus, some inducement toward aggregation was necessary to cause formation of mixed aggregates . This inducement probably took the form of a reduction of the ionic double layer surrounding the particles, which is known to occur at low pH . At pH 5 and below both viruses aggregated severely, and large mixed aggregates were formed . These mixed aggregates could be broken up by neutralization of the suspension, although small aggregates of poliovirus remained . Reovirus showed a marked tendency to attach to large clumps of poliovirus, but the reverse tendency was not observed . The results indicate that mixed aggregates may be of significance in the isolation of viruses from water or wastewater.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1979 Oct, 38(4), 688 - 93
Procedure for the recovery of airborne human enteric viruses during spray irrigation of treated wastewater; Moore BE et al.; Because of the relatively low number of indigenous enteric viruses recovered from secondary wastewater effluents, their presence in air (aerosols) as a result of wastewater spray irrigation requires extensive sampling . Methodology to allow the recovery of indigenous enteroviruses from aerosols generated at an operational wastewater irrigation site was tested under both laboratory and field conditions.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1979 Aug, 38(2), 241 - 7
Comparative adsorption of human enteroviruses, simian rotavirus, and selected bacteriophages to soils; Goyal SM et al.; Virus adsorption to soils is considered to be the most important factor in removing viruses after land treatment of wastewater . Most of the studies on virus adsorption to soils have utilized poliovirus as the model system . In the present study, comparative adsorption of a number of different types and strains of human enteroviruses and bacteriophages to nine different soil types was studied . Under the experimental conditions of this study, greater than 90% of all viruses adsorbed to a sandy loam soil except echovirus types 1, 12, and 29 and a simian rotavirus (SA-11), which adsorbed to a considerably lower degree . A great deal of variability was observed between adsorption of different strains of echovirus type 1, indicating that viral adsorption to soils is highly strain dependent . Of the five phages studied, f2 and phi X174 adsorbed the least . In addition to being dependent on type and strain of virus, adsorption was found to be influenced also by type of soil . Thus, soils having a saturated pH of less than 5 were generally good adsorbers . From these results, it appears that no one enterovirus or coliphage can be used as the sole model for determining the adsorptive behavior of viruses to soils and that no single soil can be used as the model for determining viral adsorptive capacity of all soil types.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1979 Jul, 38(1), 102 - 7
Method of soil column preparation for the evaluation of viral transport; Funderburg SW et al.; A method for packing soil columns to investigate viral transport phenomena is described . The columns were 10 cm in diameter and ranged from 33 to 100 cm in length . Field conditions of the soil, including bulk density and profile, were reproduced in columns . Ionic gradients resulting from sequential applications of wastewater and distilled water affected the movement of poliovirus I (Chat) through soil . Compared with 33-cm- and 66-cm-length columns, lower concentrations of infectious virions were observed in the percolates from 100-cm soil columns . These results may be attributed to the greater pore volume in the longer columns (the greater volume of soil contained in these columns), whereas the volume of liquid applied was constant for all columns.

Environ Health Perspect, 1979 Jun, 30, 177 - 8
Cocarcinogenicity of phenols from Estonian shale tars (oils); Bogovski PA et al.; Many phenols have carcinogenic activity . The Estonian shale oils contain up to 40 vol % phenols . The promoting activity after initiation of phenols of Estonian shale oils was tested in mice with a single subthreshold dose (0.36 mg) of benzo(a)pyrene . C57Bl and CC57Br mice were used in skin painting experiments . Weak carcinogenic activity was found in the total crude water-soluble phenols recovered from the wastewater of a shale processing plant . In two-stage experiments a clear promoting action of the total crude phenols was established, whereas the fractions A and B (training reagents), obtained by selective crystallization of the total phenols exerted a considerably weaker promoting action . Epo-glue, a commercial epoxy product produced from unfractionated crude phenols, had no promoting activity, which may be due to the processing of the phenols involving polymerization . The mechanism of action of phenols is not clear . According to some data from the literature, phenol and 5-methylresorcinol reduce the resorption speed of BP in mouse skin, causing prolongation of the action fo the carcinogen.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1979 Mar, 37(3), 626 - 32
Development of a quantitative method for the detection of enteroviruses in soil; Hurst CJ et al.; A method is described for efficiently concentrating enteroviruses from soil . Viruses were eluted from soil by mechanical agitation in high pH glycine buffer containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid . The eluted viruses were concentrated on a floc that formed de novo upon adjustment of the soil eluate to 0.06 M aluminum chloride and pH 3.5 . Viruses not pelleted with the floc were concentrated by adsorption to and elution from membrane filters . This method yielded an average efficiency of 66% recovery from loamy sand soil for four enteroviruses . Virus recovery from soil was consistently high, with samples ranging in size from 25 to 500 g . The method was used successfully to isolate naturally occurring viruses from soil beneath a wastewater land treatment site . Recovery of enteroviruses by this method form different types of soil was dependent on percentage of clay, surface area, and cation exchange capacity . Recovery was not dependent on soil saturation pH or on percentage of organic matter . This method should prove useful for studying enterovirus migration and survival during the land application of domestic sewage.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Dec, 36(6), 898 - 905
Heat inactivation of enteric viruses in dewatered wastewater sludge; Ward RL et al.; The effect of moisture content on the rates of heat inactivation of enteric viruses in wastewater sludge was determined . The protective effect of raw sludge on poliovirus previously observed (R . L . Ward, C . S . Ashley, and R . H . Moseley, Appl . Environ . Microbiol . 32:339--346, 1976) was found to be greatly enhanced in sludge dewatered by evaporation . Other enteroviruses responded in a similar fashion . This effect did not appear to be due merely to the state of dryness of the sludge samples because in humus-deficient soil, a relatively inert material, the rate of poliovirus inactivation by heat was not significantly altered through dewatering . Instead, this effect appeared to have been caused by protective substances in the sludge, such as detergents, which are concentrated through dewatering . As reported previously (R . L . Ward and C . S . Ashley, Appl . Environ . Microbiol . 34:681-688, 1977; R . L . Ward and C . S . Ashley, Appl . Environ . Microbiol 36:889--897, 1978) raw sludge is not protective of reovirus, but, instead, the ionic detergents in sludge cause the rate of heat inactivation of this virus to be accelerated . Dewatering of sludge, however, was found to partially reverse this virucidal effect . Evidence is presented indicating that this reversal is caused by an unidentified protective substance in sludge also concentrated through dewatering . Finally, it was shown that the effects of raw sludge on heat inactivation of poliovirus and reovirus are greatly reduced by composting, a result that correlated with the degradation of detergents.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Dec, 36(6), 889 - 97
Identification of detergents as components of wastewater sludge that modify the thermal stability of reovirus and enteroviruses; Ward RL et al.; The agent in wastewater sludge previously shown to reduce the heat required to inactivate reovirus (R . L . Ward and C . S . Ashley, Appl . Environ . Microbiol . 34:681--688, 1977) was "separated" from other sludge components and analyzed by infrared spectroscopy . The infrared spectrum of this material was quite similar to the spectra of commercial anionic detergents, and subsequent analyses of the fractionated sludge samples revealed that anionic detergents in sludge were copurified with the virucidal activity . Further measurements on the virucidal activities of specific detergents revealed that ionic detergents reduce the heat required to inactivate reovirus, that cationic detergents are more active than anionic, and that nonionic detergents are inactive . Several detergents were also shown to protect poliovirus and other enteroviruses against inactivation by heat . These results indicate that ionic detergents are the major component in wastewater sludge that reduce the thermal stability of reovirus and, in addition, that detergents are able to protect enteroviruses against heat.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Dec, 36(6), 824 - 30
High levels of microbial contamination of vegetables irrigated with wastewater by the drip method; Sadovski AY et al.; The public health aspects of the use of wastewater in agriculture and the effects of the drip irrigation method on the contamination of vegetables were studied . The method used was to simulate enteric microorganisms' dissemination by contaminated irrigation water in the field . The vegetables were irrigated with an effluent inoculated with a high titer of traceable microorganisms: poliovirus vaccine and a drug-resistant Escherichia coli . The dissemination of the marker organisms in the field was followed, and the effects of certain manipulations of the drip irrigation method on the contamination of the crops by the effluent were examined . It was shown that drip irrigation under plastic sheet cover with the drip lines placed either on the soil surface or buried at a depth of 10 cm significantly reduced crop contamination from inoculated irrigation water even when massive doses of bacteria and viruses were used . The microbial contamination was found to persist in the irrigation pipes and in the soil for at least 8 and 18 days, respectively . The data indicate that the recovery of the marker organisms was affected by soil texture and environmental conditions.

Can J Microbiol, 1978 Nov, 24(11), 1366 - 70
The effect of temperature on phenol degradation in wastewater; Vela GR et al.; Data are presented which show that the microbiological degradation of phenol in industrial wastewater is affected by temperature in an unexpected manner . The rate of degradation is unaffected by temperature changes in the range from 24 to 10 degrees C but falls off rapidly at temperatures below 10 degrees C . In the interval from 10 to 2 degrees C the rate of degradation is a function of temperature and is proportional to the rate of growth of the bacteria studied . By contrast, the increase in rate of phenol degradation is much greater than the increase in growth rate as the temperature increases from 10 to 24 degrees C . Field and laboratory studies show that increased efficiency of phenol degradation in wastewater is due to increase in temperature rather than to shifts in microbial populations.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Oct, 36(4), 544 - 8
Efficiency of beef extract for the recovery of poliovirus from wastewater effluents; Landry EF et al.; The efficiency of poliovirus elution from fiber glass cartridge filters (K27), epoxy-fiber glass-asbestos filters (M780), and pleated cartridge filters was assessed by using 3% beef extract (pH 9.0) or 0.1 M glycine (pH 11.5) . Poliovirus type I, strain LSc, was seeded into 20- to 25-gallon (ca . 75.6- to 95.6-liter) samples of treated sewage effluent and concentrated by using a filter adsorption-elution technique . Virus elution was accomplished by using either two 600-ml portions of 3% beef extract (pH 9.0), or two 1-liter portions of 0.1 M glycine (pH 11.5) . In all experiments, beef extract elution followed by organic flocculation was found to be superior, yielding a mean recovery efficiency of 85%, with recoveries ranging from 68 to 100% . Elution with 0.1 M glycine (pH 11.5) followed by inorganic flocculation resulted in a mean recovery efficiency of 36% . The variable range of recoveries with beef extract could not be significantly improved by varying the type of beef extract or by extending the elution time to 30 min . Second-step reconcentration of 1-liter seeded sewage effluent and renovated wastewater samples indicated that organic flocculation was a more efficient method for virus recovery than inorganic flocculation . Beef extract concentrations of less than 3% were found to be efficient in the recovery of poliovirus from renovated wastewater.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {B}, 1978 Aug, 167(1-2), 104 - 14
{About the importance of chemical flocculation of wastewater in regard to hygienical aspects (microbiological and virological examinations in a wastewater treatment plant) (author's transl)}; Becker-Birck J et al.; In a small wastewater treatment plant corresponding samples from the intake and outtake of the chemical flocculation were chemically, microbiologically and virologically investigated and compared . It was found that both, the plate count and the number of coliforms, decreased about 90% to 95% . The phosphate content went down about 88% . The BOD5 reduction was ca . 80%, the COD reduction ca . 50% . Poliomyelitisviruses were found regularly in the intake but never in the outtake . Specially in regard to the high plate count- and virusreduction the chemical flocculation seems to be remarkable from the hygienical point of view not only for limnic but also for coastal waters.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Jul, 36(1), 47 - 51
Survey of human virus occurrence in wastewater-recharged groundwater on Long Island; Vaughn JM et al.; Treated wastewater effluents and groundwater observation wells from three sewage recharge installations located on Long Island were assayed on a monthly basis for indigenous human enteroviruses and coliform bacteria for a period of 1 year . Viruses were detected in groundwater at sites where recharge basins were located less than 35 feet (ca . 10.6 m) above the aquifer . Results from one of the sites indicated the horizontal transfer of viable viruses through the groundwater aquifer.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1978 Feb, 35(2), 290 - 6
Airborne enteric bacteria and viruses from spray irrigation with wastewater; Teltsch B et al.; The relationship between bacterial concentrations in wastewater used for spray irrigation and in the air was examined . Aerosolized coliforms were detected when their concentration was 10(3)/ml or more in the wastewater . Relative humidity and solar irradiation appeared to affect viable bacteria in the air; a positive correlation was found between relative humidity and the number of aerosolized bacteria . The correlation between solar irradiation and bacterial level, on the other hand, was negative . During night irrigation, up to 10 times more aerosolized bacteria were detected than with day irrigation . Wind velocity did not play an important role in the survival of aerosolized bacteria . Echovirus 7 was isolated in 4 out of 12 air samples collected 40 m downwind from the sprinkler.

Zentralbl Bakteriol {Orig B}, 1977 Dec, 165(5-6), 471 - 7
{Evaluation of the alginat membrane filter method for the Enterovirus concentration in water (author's transl)}; Block JC et al.; It is bound to use a concentration method for the research of enteroviruses in water . One of the concentration methods, the filtration on alginat membranes, avoids the problem of the virus elution from the filter, then the membrane is soluble in a sodium citrat buffer . This method was studied with different types of water (synthetic water, tap water and wastewater) . -The recovery efficiency of Poliovirus I in clear waters (synthetic water and tap water) was poor, unsatisfying reproducible; the results are better for small virus concentrations . This efficiency may be slowly enhanced by the addition to the sample of aluminium chlorid at a final concentration of 5.10(-4) M . -The technical problems (brittleness of the membranes, slow filtrations speed, small sample volume), soon noticeable with clear waters, are more important in the case of trouble waters . Meanwhile the use of this filtration method gives better results for the recovery of Poliovirus I in wastewaters than the direct inoculation to cells cultures.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1977 Dec, 34(6), 681 - 8
Discovery of an agent in wastewater sludge that reduces the heat required to inactivate reovirus; Ward RL et al.; An agent that causes heat inactivation of reovirus to occur at reduced temperatures has been found in both raw and anaerobically digested sludge . This agent is originally associated with sludge solids but can be washed from these solids by blending with water . The activity of the agent was considerably greater in alkaline than in acid solutions, probably because it is insoluble at low pH . The agent was shown to be nonvolatile and heat stable up to 300 degrees C but was inactivated within 30 min at 400 degrees C . The rate of heat inactivation of reovirus by the agent was found to occur in a bimodal fashion and to be relatively rapid, even at 35 degrees C . Finally, it was found that this agent did not accelerate heat inactivation of poliovirus, but instead may be the component of sludge previously found to protect poliovirus against inactivation by heat.

J Chromatogr, 1977 Nov 11, 142, 745 - 54
Environmental trace analysis of organics in water by glass capillary column chromatography and ancillary techniques . Products of ozonolysis; Sievers RE et al.; A method employing a polymeric sorbent has been used for analysis of volatile organic components in water . Trace level organics are sparged from water with nitrogen gas and are concentrated on Tenax GC prior to analysis with either flame ionization gas chromatography or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . Glass capillary columns were used to obtain maximum resolution of chromatographic peaks . Specifically, the method has been applied to a qualitative and quantitative study of the products which result from ozonization of secondary treated domestic wastewater . The principal volatile products of ozonolysis are n-hexanal, n-heptanal, n-octanal and n-nonanal . Representative samples contained 0.7 ppb** of n-heptanal and less than 1 ppb of any of the volatile compounds.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1977 Nov, 34(5), 564 - 70
Inactivation of enteric viruses in wastewater sludge through dewatering by evaporation; Ward RL et al.; The effect of dewatering on the inactivation rates of enteric viruses in sludge was determined . For this study, water was evaporated from seeded raw sludge at 21 degrees C, and the loss of viral plaque-forming units was measured . Initial results with poliovirus showed that recoverable infectivity gradually decreased with the loss of water until the solids content reached about 65% . When the solids content was increased from 65 to 83%, a further, more dramatic decrease in virus titer of greater than three orders of magnitude was observed . This loss of infectivity was due to irreversible inactivation of poliovirus because viral particles were found to have released their RNA molecules which were extensively degraded . Viral inactivation in these experiments may have been at least partially caused by the evaporation process itself because similar effects on poliovirus particles were observed in distilled water after only partial loss of water by evaporation . Coxsackievirus and reovirus were also found to be inactivated in sludge under comparable conditions, which suggests that dewatering by evaporation may be a feasible method of inactivating all enteric viruses in sludge.

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 1977 Sep, 18(3), 340 - 4
Competitive adsorption of metal ions from solutions by low-cost organic materials; Henderson RW et al.; The competitive adsorption of Hg, Cu, Ni, Cd, and Zn by softwood sawdust, corncobs, and ground scrap rubber was investigated . It is concluded that these materials which are abundant, widespread, and low cost, are potentially useful in removing various metal ions from wastewater solutions.

Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 1977 Jun, 1(1), 111 - 50
Assessment of the trace organic molecular composition of industrial and municipal wastewater effluents by capillary gas chromatography/real-time high-resolution mass spectrometry: a preliminary report; Burlingame AL; In summary, the use of HRGC/HRMS and ECC can provide valuable information on the organic constituents of refinery wastewater samples, even when present in extremely complex mixtures . In many cases, the low-resolution (nominal mass) spectra would not have been interpretable without the availability of the corresponding high-resolution (accurate mass and elemental composition) information, since, even with the use of capillary columns, the components of these complex mixtures were not chromatographically resolved . It is apparent that additional components in these fractions could be identified if additional data processing followed by detailed analysis of the ECC data set is carried out incorporating the retention index information derivable from the series of n-alkanes present, although the incomplete chemical fractionation of the samples is a complicating factor in these particular wastewater extracts.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1977 May, 33(5), 1192 - 6
Concentration of enteroviruses from estuarine water; Farrah SR et al.; Pleated cartridge filters readily adsorb viruses in estuarine water at low pH containing aluminum chloride . Adsorbed viruses are efficiently recovered by treating filters with glycine buffer at high pH . By using these procedures, it was possible to recover approximately 70% of the poliovirus added to 400 liters of estuarine water in 3 liters of filter eluate . Reconcentration of virus in the filter eluate in small volumes that are convenient for viral assays was more difficult . Reconcentration methods described previously for eluates from filters that process tap water or treated wastewater were inadequate when applied to eluates from filters used to process estuarine water containing large amounts of organic compounds . Two methods were found to permit efficient concentration of virus in filter eluates in small volumes . In both methods, virus in 3 liters of filter eluate was adsorbed to aluminum hydroxide flocs and then recovered in approximately 150 ml of buffered fetal calf serum . Additional reductions in volume were achieved by ultrafiltration or hydroextraction . By using these procedures 60 to 80% of the virus in 3 liters of filter eluate could be recovered in a final volume of 10 to 40 ml.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1977 Apr, 33(4), 860 - 4
Identification of the virucidal agent in wastewater sludge; Ward RL et al.; Anaerobically digested sludge contains an agent that causes irreversible inactivation of poliovirus . It has now been shown that the agent responsible for this activity is ammonia . The effect of ammonia on poliovirus appears to be typical for picornaviruses, but reovirus, an enteric virus of another group, is quite resistant to this compound . Because ammonia is not virucidal in its charged state, it expresses significant activity only at pH values greater than 8 . Therefore, increasing the pH of sludge should cause rapid inactivation of indigenous picornaviruses.

Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 1977 Mar, 17(3), 355 - 9
Reduction of mercury, copper, nickel, cadmium, and zinc levels in solution by competitive adsorption onto peanut hulls, and raw and aged bark; Henderson RW et al.; The competitive adsorption of common heavy metal ions by peanut hulls, raw bark, and composted bark was studied . These solid wastes were found to adsorb significant amounts of one or more of the heavy metals (Hg, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn) commonly found in municipal sludge and wastewater.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1976 Oct, 32(4), 645 - 6
Effect of potential water pollutants and enzyme inhibitors on an automated rapid test for Escherichia coli; Moran JW et al.; The effect of selected potential inhibitors that may be found in water or wastewater on the activity of glutamate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.5) from Escherichia coli was determined . Several classes of compounds inhibited the enzyme, but those expected to be most frequently encountered were the heavy metal ions, the phosphates, and possibly the sulfates . From the results, it was judged that these compounds should not adversely affect the routine usage of this enzyme in an automated rapid test for E . coli.

Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1976 Sep, 37(9), 526 - 36
Aerosol production by irrigation equipment used for land application of wastewater; Raynor GS et al.; Aerosol production from sprays of four irrigation systems used for upland application of wastewater was studied over a range of operating and meteorological conditions by sampling particles from evaporated tracer droplets . Most aerosol-forming droplets were less than 100 mum in diameter with median number diameters from 1 to 3 mum and median mass diameters appreciably larger . More than 10(10) respirable sized particles were produced per minute by single nozzles . Actual wastewater sprays were similar . Diffusion calculations indicate decreases in concentration of 1 to 2 orders of magnitude in 1 km.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1976 Sep, 32(3), 339 - 46
Heat inactivation of poliovirus in wastewater sludge; Ward RL et al.; The effect of raw and anaerobically digested sludge on heat inactivation of poliovirus was investigated . Raw sludge was found to be very protective of poliovirus plaque-forming ability at all temperatures studied, but digested sludge had variable effects that were highly dependent upon the experimental conditions . In low concentrations and at relatively low inactivation temperatures, digested sludge is nearly as protective of poliovirus as raw sludge . However, at higher tempeatures and concentrations, digested sludge caused a significant acceleration of poliovirus inactivation . The difference between the protective capability of raw and digested sludge is not due to loss of protective material, because this component is present in the solids of digested sludge as well as in those of raw sludge . Instead, the difference is due to a virucidal agent acquired during digestion . Addition of this agent to the solids of either raw or digested sludge reverses the protective potential of these solids during heat treatment of poliovirus.

Science, 1976 Jun 4, 192(4243), 1004 - 5
Wastewater renovation and reuse: virus removal by soil filtration; Gilbert RG et al.; Secondary sewage effluent and renovated water from four wells at the Flushing Meadows Wastewater Renovation Project near Phoenix, Arizona, in operation since 1967, were assayed approximately every 2 months in 1974 for viruses during flooding periods . Viruses, regularly found in the secondary effluent, were not detected in any renovated water samples . Our results indicated that human viral pathogens do not move through soil into the groundwater, but are apparently absorbed and degraded by the soil and reduced in numbers by a factor of at least 10(4) (99.99 percent removal).

J Microw Power, 1976 Jun, 11(2), 117 - 25
Microwave oven for improved biological solids determination; Carter JL et al.; This paper describes the evaluation of the use of microwave power to evaporate the water from biological solids in the suspended solids analysis for wastewater treatment plants . when microwave power was applied to the sample at a level of 1.8 watts per gram of water a constant weight was achieved in twelve minutes . This compares with sixty minutes drying time in the conventional test where thermal ovens are utilized . Solids results from microwaves oven drying were more precise than the results from drying with a thermal oven.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1976 Jun, 31(6), 801 - 6
Toxicity of ammonia to algae in sewage oxidation ponds; Abeliovich A et al.; Ammonia, at concentrations over 2.0 mM and at pH values over 8.0, inhibits photosynthesis and growth of Scenedesmus obliquus, a dominant species in high-rate sewage oxidation ponds . Photosynthesis of Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Anacystis nidulans, and Plectonema boryanum is also susceptible to ammonia inhibition . Dark respiration and cell morphology were unaffected by any combination of pH and ammonia concentrations tested, thus limiting the apparent effect to inhibition of the normal function of the chloroplasts . Methylamine had the same effect as ammonia, and its penetration into the cells was found to be pH dependent . Therefore, the dependence of toxicity of amines to algae on pH apparently results from the inability to penetrate the cell membrane in the ionized form . When operated at 120-h detention time of raw wastewater, the high-rate oxidation pond maintained a steady state with respect to algal growth and oxygen concentration, and the concentration of ammonia did not exceed 1.0 mM . Shifting the pond to 48-h detention time caused an increase in ammonia concentration in the pond water to 2.5 mM, and the pond gradually turned anaerobic . Photosynthesis, which usually elevates the pH of the pond water to 9.0 to 10.0, could not proceed beyond pH 7.9 because of the high concentration of ammonia, and the algal population was washed out and reduced to a concentration that could maintain a doubling time of 48 h without photosynthesis bringing the pH to inhibitory levels . Under these conditions, the pH of the bond becomes a factor that limits the operational efficiency of the oxidation pond.

Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 1976 May, 37(5), 268 - 73
Gas chromatographic determination of acetic acid in industrial atmosphere and waste water; Esposito GG et al.; A gas chromatographic (GC) method is presented for the specific determination of acetic acid in air and total ionic acetate (as acetic acid) in industrial waste water . Atmospheric air samples are collected in fritted midget bubblers containing aqueous sodium carbonate solution; wastewater samples are treated directly with sodium carbonate . Both air and water samples are concentrated by evaporation of water, and the acetic acid is regenerated by the addition of hydrochloric acid . The amount of acetic acid is determined quantitatively on a porous polymer packed column by internal standardization with propionic acid . GC conditions are described for the suppression of "ghosting" and "tailing" caused by adsorption phenomena associated with the GC behavior of organic acids.

Can J Microbiol, 1976 Mar, 22(3), 364 - 78
Detection of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains in wastewater by fluorescent antibody; Abshire RL; Flourescent antibody (FA) techniques were used to evaluate fluorescein-labeled enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EEC) OB globulins as a means of presumptively detecting these serogroups in wastewater . Four of the more prevalent and incriminated EEC serogroups were detected by FA and isolated from wastewater . A total of 317 sewage isolates biochemically defined as E . coli were tested by FA and agglutination tests . Only a small number of these isolates (9/317, 2.8%) were serologically groups as being enteropathogenic related strains . The frequency of occurrence of EEC organisms in a wastewater, as determined by FA, is reported . The use of highly specific OB fluorescent antibodies to monitor wastewater for the presence of EEC is discussed.

Appl Environ Microbiol, 1976 Mar, 31(3), 354 - 8
Demonstration of solids-associated virus in wastewater and sludge; Wellings FM et al.; Data presented demonstrate the relatively high multiplicity of solids-associated virus in field samples, i.e., wastewater, sludge, and soils . Influent, effluent, and chlorinated effluent samples showed 16.1 to 100% of the total virus demonstrated in samples to be solids associated . Three techniques for freeing solids-associated virus are described and compared . Using sonication of solids and polyethylene glycol concentration, virus was demonstrated in fully digested sludge (60 days at 34 C), sand at the site of a sewer leak, and dried sludge cake and mud 900 m downstream from a sewage disposal site . These data emphasize the inadequacy of virus concentration techniques that do not include the processing of solids . In situ elution failed to free solids-associated virus.

Acta Microbiol Pol, 1976, 25(3), 233 - 42
Studies on the purification of wastewater from the nitrogen fertilizer industry by intensive algal cultures . I . Growth of Chlorella vulgaris in wastes; Matusiak K; The possibility of growth of intensive cultures of Chlorella vulgaris on industrial wastewater from nitrogen fertizer plant containing ammonia, urea and nitrate was investigated . Good growth of algae was obtained when the waste was enriched with phosphorus and inoculum contained a high number of cells . The optimal pH for the culture was 7.0--8.0 . The main factor limiting growth of algae on wastes on the concentration of ammonia nitrogen . Chlorella vulgaris grows quite well in wastes containing 600 mg NH4-N/l but is inhibited at concentration about 100 mg NH4-N/l.

Sci Total Environ, 1975 Jul, 4(2), 155 - 63
Removal of trace levels of 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF) from wastewater; Nony CR et al.; An adsorption system is described for the removal of part per billion levels of the chemical carcinogen, 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF), from industrial wastewater . The system consists primarily of filters and activated carbon and non-ionic polymeric adsorbents arranged in tandem . It is highly efficient, operates at low cost, and requires minimal attention . The chemical monitoring of the raw and/or cleaned-up wastewater is based on a highly sensitive and specific spectrophotofluorometric method that allows acceptance or rejection of samples at the 0.2 part per billion level . The system is presented as a model for evaluating the removal of traces of organic chemicals from wastewater prior to recycling or discharging it into the environment . Results of laboratory evaluations of several other approaches to the purification of 2-AAF-containing wastewater are also presented.

Environ Lett, 1975, 10(1), 47 - 52
Chlorination in dilute aqueous systems; 2,4,6-trichlorophenol; Smith JG et al.; Chlorination of wastewaters can cause extensive transformations of organic contaminants . In the case of phenol, the reaction path is only partially understood . In an effort to elucidate this reaction, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in dilute aqueous solution was treated with excess hypochlorous acid at pH 3.5-6 . The major products were 2,6-dichloroquinone and 2,4,4,6-tetrachloro-2,5-cyclohexadienone . Additional polychlorinated species are formed in minor amounts by the addition of chlorine and/or hypochlorous acid to the aromatic ring.

Environ Lett, 1975, 10(3), 215 - 23
Virus association with wastewater solids; Cliver DO; The solids produced at an urban wastewater treatment plant, tested semiquantitatively, almost all contained human intestinal viruses . Reoviruses and five or more types of enteroviruses were present . Sludge, digested anaerobically at 30 degrees-32 degrees C, and grit contained measurable levels of viruses . Until reliable means of inactivating the viruses have been developed and implemented, great care should be taken in disposing of these solids.

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