What Is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.

Of the many different definitions available, the one formulated by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity is one of the broadest:

Biotechnology is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. One section of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer, milk-products, and skin). Naturally present bacteria are utilized by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and produce biological weapons.

There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living organisms. Examples are DNA microarrays used in genetics and radioactive tracers used in medicine.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered Mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster ovarian cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

There are number of jargon terms for sub-fields of biotechnology.

Red biotechnology is biotechnology applied to medical processes. An example would include an organism designed to produce an antibiotic, or engineering genetic cures to diseases through genomic manipulation.

White biotechnology, also known as grey biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example would include an organism designed to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less resources that traditional processes when used to produce industrial goods.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would include an organism designed to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. Green biotechnology tends to produce more environmentally friendly solutions then traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this would include a plant engineered to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides.

The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Biotechnology timeline:

8000BC Collecting of seeds for replanting. Evidence that Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans used selective breeding (artificial selection) practices to improve livestock.

6000BC Brewing beer, fermenting wine, baking bread with help of yeast

4000BC Chinese made yoghurt and cheese with lactic-acid-producing bacteria

1500 Plant collecting around the world

1800 Nikolai I. Vavilov created comprehensive research on breeding animals

1880 Microorganisms discovered

1856 Gregor Mendel started recombinant plant genetics

1919 Karl Ereky, a Hungarian engineer, first used the word biotechnology

1975 Method for producing monoclonal antibody developed by Kohler and Milstein

1980 Modern biotech is characterized by recombinant DNA technology. The prokaryote model, E. coli, is used to produce insulin and other medicine, in human form. (About 5% of diabetics are allergic to animal insulins available before)

1992 FDA approves of the first GM food from Calgene: "flavor saver" tomato

2000 Completion of the Human Genome Project

Industrial biotechnology (also known as white biotechnology) is the practice of using cells to generate industrially-useful products. The Economist speculated (as cited in the Economist article listed in the "References" section) industrial biotechnology might significantly impact the chemical industry. The Economist also suggested it might enable economies to become less dependent on fossil fuels.

Diversa is an example of a company that specializes in industrial biotechnology.

Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms or their enzymes to return the environment altered by contaminants to its original condition. Bioremediation may be employed in order to attack specific contaminants, such as chlorinated pesticides that are degraded by bacteria, or a more general approach may be taken, such as oil spills that are broken down using multiple techniques including the addition of fertilizer to facilitate the decomposition of crude oil by bacteria.

Not all contaminants are readily treated through the use of bioremediation; for example, heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or captured by organisms. The integration of metals such as mercury into the food chain may make things worse as organisms bioaccumulate these metals.

However, there are a number of advantages to bioremediation, which may be employed in areas which cannot be reached easily without excavation. For example, hydrocarbon spills (or more specific: gasoline) may contaminate groundwater well below the surface of the ground; injecting the right organisms, in conjunction with oxygen-forming compounds, may significantly reduce concentrations after a period of time. This is much less expensive than excavation followed by burial elsewhere or incineration, and reduces or eliminates the need for pumping and treatment, which is a common practice at sites where hydrocarbons have contaminated groundwater.

Generally, bioremediation technologies can be classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation technologies are bioventing, land farming, bioreactor, composting, bioaugmentation and biostimulation.

A bioreactor is a vessel in which is carried out a chemical process which involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms.

Bioreactors are commonly cylindrical, ranging in size from some liter to cube meters,and are often made of stainless steel.

Bioreactor design Bioreactor design is quite a complex engineering task. Under optimum conditions the microorganisms or cells will reproduce at an astounding rate. The vessel's environmental conditions like gas (i.e., air, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide) flowrates, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen levels, and agitation speed need to be closely monitored and controlled. One bioreactor manufacturer, Broadley-James Corporation, uses vessels, sensors, controllers, and a control system, digitally networked together for their bioreactor system.

Fouling can harm the overall sterility and efficiency of the bioreactor, especially the heat exchangers. To avoid it the bioreactor must be easily cleanable and must be as smooth as possible (therefore the round shape).

Heat exchange is needed to maintain the bioprocess at a constant temperature. Biological fermentation is a major source of heat, therefore in most cases bioreactors need water refrigeration. They can be refrigerated with an external jacket or, for very large vessels, with internal coils.

Optimal oxygen transfer is perhaps the most difficult task to accomplish. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water -and even less in fermentation broths- and is relatively scarce in air (20.8%). Oxygen transfer is usually helped by agitation, that is also needed to mix nutrients and to keep the fermentation homogeneous. There are however limits to the speed of agitation, due both to high power consumption (that's proportional to the cube of the speed) and the damage to organisms due to excessive tip speed.

Compost is the decomposed remnants of organic materials (those with plant and animal origins). Compost is used in gardening and agriculture, mixed in with the soil. It improves soil structure, increases the amount of organic matter, and provides nutrients.

Compost is a common name for humus, which is the result of the decomposition of organic matter. Decomposition is performed primarily by microbes, although larger creatures such as worms and ants contribute to the process. Decomposition occurs naturally in all but the most hostile environments, such as buried in landfills or in extremely arid deserts, which prevent the microbes and other decomposers from thriving.

Composting is the controlled decomposition of organic matter. Rather than allowing nature to take its slow course, a composter provides an optimal environment in which decomposers can thrive. To encourage the most active microbes, the compost pile needs the proper mix of the following ingredients: Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen (air) Water. Decomposition happens even in the absence of some of these ingredients, but not nearly as quickly and not nearly as pleasantly (for example, the plastic bag of vegetables in your refrigerator is decomposed by microbes, but the absence of air encourages anaerobic microbes that produce disagreeable odors).

All guidelines for building compost piles have the goal of creating the proper environment for a decomposing ecosystem. The ecosystem in a compost pile is a microcosm of larger ecosystems. The correct environment must be maintained for a healthy and vigorous community of decomposers. In addition to the decomposers that work directly on the organic content of the pile, compost piles provide habitat for those that prey upon direct decomposers. Their waste also becomes part of the process.

The most effective decomposers are bacteria and other microorganisms. Also important are fungi, molds, protozoa, and actinomycetes--which is something between a fungus and a mold and is often seen as white filaments in decomposing organic matter. At a macroscopic level, earthworms, ants, snails, slugs, millipedes, sow bugs, springtails, and others work on consuming and breaking down the organic matter. Centipedes and other predators feed upon these decomposers.

Compost ingredients The goal in a compost pile is to provide a healthy environment--and nutrition--for the rapid decomposers, the bacteria.

The most rapid composting occurs with the ideal ratio--by dry chemical weight--of carbon to nitrogen, from 25-to-1 to 30-to-1. In other words, the ingredients placed in the pile should contain 30 times as much carbon as nitrogen. For example, grass clippings average about 19-to-1 and dry autumn leaves average about 55-to-1. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal range. Commercial-grade composting operations pay strict attention to this ratio. For backyard composters, however, the charts of carbon and nitrogen ratios in various ingredients and the calculations required to get the ideal mixture can be intimidating, so many rules of thumb exist to guide composters in approximating this mixture.

High-carbon sources provide the cellulose needed by the composting bacteria for conversion to sugars and heat.

High-nitrogen sources provide the most concentrated protein, which allow the compost bacteria to thrive.

Some ingredients with higher carbon content:

Dry, straw-type material, such as cereal straws Autumn leaves Sawdust and wood chips Some paper and cardboard (such as corrugated cardboard or newsprint with soy-based inks) Some ingredients with higher nitrogen content:

Wilted green material (usually crop residues, or plants mowed for the purpose) Animal manures (vegetarians, not meat-eaters) Grass clippings Fruit and vegetable trimmings, skins, and waste Poultry manure provides lots of nitrogen but little carbon. Horse manure provides both. Sheep and cattle manure don't drive the compost heap to as high a temperature as poultry or horse manure, so the heap takes longer to produce the finished product.

In an attempt to judge the proper mix of materials, different rules of thumb are available. Some prefer to add one basket full of nitrogen source followed by one basket of carbon source. Mixing the materials as they are added increases the rate of decomposition, but some people prefer to place the materials in alternating layers, approximately 15 cm (6 inches) thick, to help estimate the quantities. Keeping carbon and nitrogen sources separated in the pile can slow down the process but decomposition will occur in any event.

Composting techniques There are two primary methods of aerobic composting:

Active (or hot) composting, which allows the most effective decomposing bacteria to thrive, kills most pathogens and seeds, and rapidly produces usable compost Passive (or cold) composting, which lets nature take its course in a more leisurely manner and leaves many pathogens and seeds dormant in the pile Most commercial and industrial composting operations use active composting techniques. This ensures a higher quality product and produces results in the shortest time (SEE compost windrow turner).

Home composters use a range of techniques varying from extremely passive composting (throw everything in a pile in a corner and leave it alone for a year or two) to extremely active (monitoring the temperature, turning the pile regularly, and adjusting the ingredients over time) and combinations of both.

Some composters use mineral powders to absorb smells, although a well-maintained pile seldom has bad odors.

Microbes and heating the pile An effective compost pile is kept about as damp as a well wrung-out sponge. This provides the moisture that all life needs to survive; in a compost pile, it provides an environment in which microbes can begin to do their work. Bacteria and other microorganisms fall into a variety of groups in terms of what their ideal temperature is and how much heat they generate as they do their work. Mesophilic bacteria enjoy midrange temperatures, from about 20 to 40 °C (70 to 110 °F). As they decompose the organic matter, they generate heat, and the inner part of a compost pile heats up the most.

The heap should be about 1 m (3 ft) wide, 1 m (3 ft) tall, and as long as is practicable – the advantage to making the heap at least 1 m³ (1 yd³) is that it provides suitable insulating mass to allow a good heat build-up as the material decays. The ideal temperature range hovers around 60 °C (140 °F), which kills most pathogens and weed seeds and also provides a suitable environment for thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria, which are the fastest acting decomposers. The centre of the heap should get quite warm, possibly hot enough to burn a bare hand. If this fails to happen, common reasons include the following:

The heap is too wet, thus excluding the oxygen required by the compost bacteria The heap is too dry, so that the bacteria do not have the moisture needed to survive and reproduce There is insufficient protein (nitrogen rich material) The solution is to add material, if necessary, and/or to turn the pile to aerate it.

Depending on how quickly the compost is required, the heap can be turned one or more times to bring the outer layers to the inside of the heap and vice versa, as well as to aerate the mixture. Adding water at this time keeps the pile as damp as a wrung-out sponge. One guideline is to turn the pile when the high temperature has begun to drop, indicating that the food source for the fastest-acting bacteria (in the center of the pile) has been largely consumed. After the temperature stops rising after the pile has been turned, there is no further advantage in turning the pile. When all the material has become barely recognisable from the original ingredients, turning into dark brown or nearly black crumbly matter, it's ready to use. Some practitioners like to leave the compost to mature further for up to a year as this seems to make the benefits of compost last longer.

Other ingredients Some like to put special materials and activators into their compost. A light dusting of agricultural lime (not on the animal manure layers) can curb excessive acidity that can slow down the fermentation. Seaweed meal can provide a ready source of trace elements. Finely pulverised rock dust can also provide needed minerals, but watch out for rock dust that consists mostly of clay.

The animal manure part of compost source materials can be collected by composting toilets (in this case, human feces). However, such compost is usually not used as a fertilizer for plants that are directly edible (e.g., salad crops) but should instead be used on trees, bush fruits or else on the ornamental garden.

Bioaugmentation refers to the introduction of a group of natural microbial strain or a genetically engineered variant so as to achive bioremediation.

Usually the step involves studying the indigenous varieties present in the location. If the indigenous variety do not have the metabolic machinery that can do the remediation process, exogenous varieties with such sophisticated pathways are introduced.

Remediation is the removal of pollution or contaminants from land (including sediments in waterways) for the general protection of the environment or, quite commonly, from a brownfield site so that it can be reused. The reuse of brownfield sites is part of the urban consolidation movement and allows the regeneration of decaying former industrial areas, sometimes for industry, but often for high density housing, particulalry in areas of scenic beauty (along Harbours and rivers) and close to the CBD of a city or major transport infrastructure such as railway stations.

Remediation is generally subject to an array of legislation, and is based on assessments of health and ecological risks where there are no legislated standards or where standards are advisory (often called preliminary remediation goals (PRG)s).

Remediation in terms of new media, is the representation of one medium in another. (Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin 1999).

Remediation standards In the USA the most comprehensive set of PRG's is from the EPA Region 9, although the Canadian EPA also has a comprehensive spreadsheet of PRG's. There is also a set of standard used in Europe commonly called the Dutch standards. The EU is rapidly moving towards European wide standards, although most of the industrialised nations in Europe have their own standards at present

Site assessment Once a site is suspected of being seriously contaminated there is a need to assess it. The historical use of the site and the materials used and produced on site will guide the assessment strategy and nature of sampling and chemical testing to be done. Often nearby sites owned by the same company or which are nearby and have been reclaimed, levelled or filled are also contaminated even where the current land use seems innocuous. For example, the car park may have been levelled by using contaminated waste in the fill. It is also important to consider off site contamination or nearby sites often through decades of emissions to soil, water, and air. Ceiling dust, topsoil, surface and groundwater of nearby properties should be tested both before and after the remediation. This is a controversial step as:

No one wants to have to pay for the clean up of the site; If nearby properties are found to be contaminated it may have to be noted on their property title, potentially affecting saleability or value; No one wants to pay for the cost of assessment. Often corporations which do voluntary testing of their sites are protected from the reports to environmental agencies becoming public under Freedom of Information Acts, however a Freedom Of Information inquiry will often produce other documents that are not protected or will produce references to the reports.

Funding remediation In the US there has been a mechanism for taxing polluting industries to form a Superfund to remediate abandoned sites, or to litigate to force corporations to remediate their contaminated sites. Other countries have other mechanisms and commonly sites are rezoned to "higher" uses such as high density housing, to give the land a higher value so that after deducting clean up costs there is still an incentive for a developer to purchase the land, clean it up, redevelop it and sell it on, often as apartments (home units).

Remediation technologies Remediation technologies are many and varied. The best source of information is probably http://www.clu-in.org/

Some technologies are controversial, particularly anything involving relative low temperature incineration because of the risks of dioxins released in the atmosphere through the exhaust gases. For this reason remediation proponents often use terminolgy like thermal oxidiser and direct thermal desorption to minimise the risk of the community thinking about incineration risks. However, controlled, high temperature incineration with filtering of exhaust gases should not pose any risks.

The treatment of environmental problems through biological means is known as bioremediation and the specific use of plants is known as phytoremediation.

Community consultation and information In preparation for any significant remediation there should be extensive community consultation. The proponent should both present information to and seek information from the community. The proponent needs to know about "sensitive" (future) uses like childcare, schools, hospitals, and playgrounds as well as community concerns and interests information. Consultation should be open, on a group basis so that each member of the community is informed about issues they may not have individually thought about. An independent chairperson acceptable to both the proponent and the community should be engaged (at proponent expense if a fee is required). Minutes of meetings including questions asked and the answers to them and copies of presentations by the proponent should be available both on the internet and at a local library (even a school library) or community centre.

Incremental health risk Incremental Health Risk is the increased risk that a receptor (normally a human being living nearby) will face from (the lack of) a remediation project. The use of incremental health risk is based on cancer and non-cancer effects such as reproductive abnormalities and often involves value judgements about the acceptable projected rate of increase in cancer. In some jursdictions this is 1 in a million, but in other jurisdictions it is 1 in 100,000. A relatively small incremental health risk from a single project is not of much comfort if the area already has a relatively high health risk from other operations like incinerators or other emissions, or if there are other projects at the same time causing a greater cumulative risk or an unacceptably high total risk. An analogy often used by remediators is to compare the risk of the remediation on nearby residents to the risks of death through car accidents or tobacco smoking.

Emissions standards Standards are set for the levels of dust, noise, odour, emissions to air and groundwater, and discharge to sewer or waterways of all chemicals of concern or chemicals likely to be produced during the remediation by processing of the contaminants. These are compared against both natural background levels in the area and standards for areas zoned as nearby areas are zoned and against standards used in other recent remediations. Just because the emission is emanating from an area zoned industrial doesn't mean that in a nearby residential area there should be permitted any exceedences of the appropriate residential standards.

Monitoring for compliance against each standards is critical to ensure that exceedences are detected and reported both to authorities and the local community.

Enforcement is necessary to ensure that continued or significant breeches result in fines or even a jail sentence for the remediator.

Penalties must be significant as otherwise fines are treated as a normal expense of doing business. It must be cheaper to comply than have continuous breeeches.

Transport and emergency safety assessment Assessment should be made of the risks of operations, transporting contaminated material, disposal of waste which may be contaminated including workers clothes, and a formal emergency response plan should be developed. Every worker and visitor entering the site should have a safety induction tailored to their involvement with the site.

Impacts of funding remediation The rezoning is often resisted by local communities and local government because of the adverse impacts on the local amenity of the remediation and the new development. The main impacts during remediation are noise, dust, odour and incremental health risk. Then there is the noise dust and traffic of developments. Then there is the impact on local traffic, schools, playing fields, and other public facilities of the often vastly increased local population.

Example of a major remediation project For an example of a complete rezoning by a state government over the opposition of local government and local communities of former chemical plants to fund remediation to allow for redevelopment for high density residential, retail and office development in Australia see http://rhodesnsw.org

In this case the proposed rezoning, remediation and redevelopment has a wealth of material available through the internet from:

list of sources of publicly available material, most accessible through the internet and from http://rhodesnsw.org: Numerous investigations and reports by Australian and International consultants For the former Union Carbide site, a previous remediation by excavation and containment in a clay capped sarcophagus, separated from the Bay by a bentonite wall. A Parliamentary Inquiry by the Upper House of the Parliament of New South Wales, a state of Australia; Two Commissions of Inquiry, one for each of the major dioxin contaminated sites, both contaminated by the operations of Union Carbide; Resolutions by the relevant local government bodies (originally Concord council and after the Municipality of Concord was merged with Drummoyne Council to form the City of Canada Bay, by that Council); Campaigns by local residents' groups, Greenpeace Australia, Nature Conservation Council of NSW, and Inner West (of Sydney branch of the) Greens published submissions by Planning NSW and Environmental Protection Agency of NSW; Comprehensive Environmental Impact studies published in digital format and available on CD from Planning NSW. This rezoning, remediation and redevelopment of land contaminated by Union Carbide, ICI and others also involves the remediation of a strip of dioxin contaminated sediments in Homebush Bay, New South Wales. The Homebush Bay area was home to the main events of the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics. The sediments were dealt with in the Commission of Inquiry into the Lednez site formerly owned by Union Carbide, but not to the satisfaction of local community activists.

The remediation of Homebush Bay is important because of its impact on the food chain which extends through benthos not only to local protected and threatened species of birds, but also to JAMBA and CAMBA protected species and species which use other RAMSAR protected wetlands. Ultimately human health is impacted through the food chain. Homebush Bay has a complete fishing ban, there is a commercial fin fishing ban west of the Gladesville Bridge, and based on submissions of the remediator and NSW Waterways and EPA the complete fishing ban ought be extended to the whole of the Parramatta River west of Homebush Bay and at least as far East as the Ryde Traffic Bridge.

Phytoremediation is the technical term used to describe the treatment of environmental problems through the use of plants.

Certain plants are able to extract hazardous substances such as arsenic, lead and uranium from soil and water. One example is alpine pennycress, a plant which naturally accumulates high levels of cadmium and zinc from the environment. Alpine pennycress is therefore known as a hyperaccumulator of these metals, which in unnaturally high levels would be poisionous to many plants. Another example of a hyperaccumulator is the brake fern. This fern extracts arsenic from the soil at a much greater rate than other plants.

This has been done successfully in clinical trials, particularly in the case of Ashanti DeSilva, a girl who had a defective gene that was responsible for the immune system enzyme ADA. Thus she was prone to infections. Scientists took out her white blood cells and used a delivery system to inject a functional ADA gene into the cells. These were injected back into Ashanti's arm. a, f. Now she takes only a small "backup" dose of what would have been a battery of preventive medicines for maintaining her healthy state.

This arsenic is stored in the fern's leaves at as much as 200 times that present in the soil, thus enabling effective and practical clean-up programs. Sunflowers were also used to clean up uranium near Chernobyl.

Breeding programs and genetic engineering are powerful methods for enhancing natural tendencies of plant, or for introducing these tendencies into alternative types of plant which might be more suitable for the environmental conditions.

The range of biological treatments for environmental problems, as described by the term phytoremediation, actually consists of several specific processes:

Phytoextraction - Uptake of substances from the environment, with storage in the plant (phytoaccumulation). Phytostabilisation - Reducing the movement or transfer of substances in the environment. For example, limiting the leaching of substances contaminating soil. Phytostimulation - Enhancement of microbial activity for the degradation of contaminants, typically around plant roots. Phytotransformation - Uptake of substances from the environment, with degradation occurring within the plant (phytodegradation). Phytovolatilization - Removal of substances from the soil or water with release into the air, possibly after degradation. Rhizofiltration - The removal of toxic metals from ground water.

Bioleaching is the extraction of specific metals from their ores through the use of bacteria.

Bioleaching is a new technique used by the mining industry to extract minerals such as gold and copper from their ores. Traditional extractions involve many expensive steps such as roasting and smelting, which requires sufficient concentrations of elements in ores. Low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they simply ignore the waste which surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These microorganisms actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the ions out of solution after the bacteria have finished.

Some advantages associated with bioleaching are:

economical: bioleaching is generally simpler and therefore cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants. environmental: The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled. Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching are:

not economical: the bacterial leaching process is very slow compared to smelting. This brings in less profit as well as introducing a significant delay in cash flow for new plants. not environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and H+ ions formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming "Yellow Boy" pollution. For these reasons, setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to biosafety failure. f, i, a. Currently it is more economical to smelt copper ore rather than to use bioleaching, since the concentration of copper in its ore is generally quite high. The profit obtained from the speed and yield of smelting justifies its cost. However, the concentration of gold in its ore is generally very low. The cheaper cost of bacterial leaching in this case outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal.

Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. They are microscopic and mostly unicellular, with a relatively simple cell structure lacking a cell nucleus, cytoskeleton, and organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Such organisms are called prokaryotes, in contrast to organisms with more complex cells, called eukaryotes. The term bacteria has variously applied to all prokaryotes or to a major group of them, depending on ideas about their relationships.

abundant of all organisms. They are ubiquitous in soil, water, and as symbionts of other organisms. Many pathogens, including those responsible for many if not most non-hereditary diseases, are bacteria. Most are minute, usually only 0.5-5.0 μm in size, though one type may reach 0.3 mm in diameter (Thiomargarita). They generally have cell walls, like plant and fungal cells, but with a very different composition (peptidoglycans). Many move around using flagella, which are different in structure from the flagella of other groups.

The first bacteria were observed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek in 1683 using a single-lens microscope of his own design. The name bacterium was introduced much later, by Ehrenberg in 1828, derived from the Greek word βακτηριον meaning "small stick". Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910) described the role of bacteria as conveyors and causes of disease or pathogens.

Originally the bacteria were considered microscopic fungi (called Schizomycetes), except for the photosynthetic cyanobacteria, which were considered a group of algae (called Cyanophyta or blue-green algae). It was only with the study of detailed cell structure that it was realized they formed a fundamental group, separate from the other organisms. In 1956 Copeland gave them their own kingdom Mychota, later renamed Monera, Prokaryota, or Bacteria. During the 1960s the concept was refined and bacteria (now including cyanobacteria) were recognized as one of two major divisions of the living world, together with the eukaryotes. Eukaryotes were generally believed to have evolved from bacteria, later from assemblies of bacteria.

The advent of molecular systematics challenged this view. In 1977, Woese divided the prokaryotes into two groups based on 16S rRNA sequences, called the kingdoms Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. He argued that each of these and the eukaryotes all evolved separately and in 1990 emphasized this by promoting them to domains, which were renamed the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya. This redefinition has generally been accepted by molecular biologists but criticized by some others, who maintain that he over-emphasized a few genetic differences and that both archaebacteria and eukaryotes probably developed from within the eubacteria.

Reproduction Bacteria reproduce only asexually, not sexually. Specifically they reproduce by binary fission, or simple cell division. During this process, one cell divides into two daughter cells with the development of a transverse cell wall.

However, independent of sexual reproduction, genetic variations can occur within individual cells through recombinant events such as mutation (random genetic change within a cell's own genetic code). Similar to more complex organisms, bacteria also have mechanisms for exchanging genetic material. Although not equivalent to sexual reproduction, the end result is that a bacterium contains a combination of traits from two different parental cells. Three different modes of exchange have thus far been identified in bacteria:

transformation (the transfer of naked DNA from one bacterial cell to another in solution, this can include dead bacteria), transduction (the transfer of viral, bacterial, or both bacterial and viral DNA from one cell to another via bacteriophage) and; bacterial conjugation (the transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another via a special protein structure called a conjugation pilus). Bacteria, having acquired DNA from any of these events, can then undergo fission and pass the recombined genome to new progeny cells. Many bacteria harbor plasmids that contain extrachromosomal DNA. Under favourable conditions, bacteria may form aggregates visible to the naked eye, such as bacterial mats.

Researchers today are using the same method to find cures for cancers, AIDS, and cystic fibrosis. DNA Vaccines and Edible Vaccines are two types of vaccines biotechnologists are trying to develop. Both aim to produce vaccines that are cheaper and more accessible. DNA vaccines are composed of genes that code for inactive virus parts. When injected directly into our bodies, we will produce these inactive virus parts that may cause our immune system to recognize the whole virus when it infects us later. h, a, k, d, k. Thus our immune system will be ready to defend us. On the other hand, in edible vaccines these genes are packaged into food, such as bananas, so that they will be in a form readily distributed and accepted by the people. No more injections!

Metabolisms Bacteria show a wide variety of different metabolisms. Heterotrophs depend on an organic source of carbon, while autotrophs are able to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. Autotrophs that obtain energy by oxidizing chemical compounds are called chemotrophs, and those that obtain their energy from light, via photosynthesis, are called phototrophs. There are many variations on this terminology such as chemoautotrophs and photosynthetic autotrophs and so on. In addition, bacteria are distinguished based on the source of reducing equivalents they are using. Those using inorganic compounds (e. g. water, hydrogen, sulfide or ammonia) for this purpose are called lithotrophs and others needing organic compounds (e. g. sugars or organic acids) and are called organotrophs. The metabolic modes of energy metabolism (phototrophy or chemotrophy), reducing equivalent sources (lithotrophy or organotrophy) and carbon sources (autotrophy or heterotrophy) can be combined differently in any single microorganism, and even shifting between different modes frequently occurs in many species.

The photolithoautotrophs include the cyanobacteria, which are some of the oldest organisms known from the fossil record and probably played an important role in creating the Earth's oxygen atmosphere. They apparently pioneered the use of water as (lithotrophic) electron source and were the first to use the photosynthetic water splitting apparatus. Other photosynthetic bacteria use different electron sources and therefore do not produce oxygen. These anoxygenic phototrophs fall into four phylogenetic groups: the green sulfur bacteria, green non-sulfur bacteria, purple bacteria, and heliobacteria.

Other nutritional requirements include nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, vitamins and metallic elements such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, zinc, cobalt, copper and nickel for normal growth. For some species, additional trace elements such as selenium, tungsten, vanadium or boron are needed.

Based on their response to oxygen, most bacteria can be placed into one of three groups: Some bacteria can grow only in the presence of oxygen and are called aerobes; others can grow only in the absence of oxygen and are called anaerobes; and some can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen and are called facultative anaerobes. Bacteria that do not utilize oxygen for respiration but still grow in its presence are called aerotolerant. Bacteria also thrive in environments that are considered extreme for mankind. These organisms are called extremophiles. Some bacteria inhabit hot springs and are called thermophiles; others inhabit highly saltine lakes and are called halophiles; yet others inhabit acidic or alkaline environments and are called acidophiles and alkaliphiles, respectively; and still others inhabit alpine glaciers and are called psychrophiles.

Movement Motile bacteria can move about, either using flagella, bacterial gliding, or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, have structures similar to flagella, called axial filaments, between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body which twists about as it moves.

Bacterial flagella are arranged in many different ways. Bacteria can have a single polar flagellum at one end of a cell, or they can have clusters of many flagella at one end. Peritrichous bacteria have flagella scattered all over the cell. Many bacteria (such as e.coli) have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and introduces an important element of randomness in their forward movement. (see external links below for link to videos).

Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli, behaviors called taxes - for instance, chemotaxis, phototaxis, mechanotaxis and magnetotaxis (Italian) (http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batteri_magnetotattici). In one peculiar group, the myxobacteria, individual bacteria attract to form swarms and may differentiate to form fruiting bodies.

Bacteria come in a variety of different shapes. Most are rod-shaped, sphere-shaped, or helix-shaped; these are respectively referred to as bacilli, cocci, and spirillum. An additional group, vibrios, are comma-shaped. Shape is no longer considered a defining factor in the classification of bacteria, but many genera are named for their shape (e.g. Bacillus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus) and it is an important part in their identification.

Another important tool is Gram staining, named after Hans Christian Gram who developed the technique. This separates bacteria into two groups, based on the composition of their cell wall. The first formal grouping of bacteria into phyla was based largely on this test:

Gracilicutes - bacteria with a second cell membrane containing lipids, giving them Gram-negative stains Firmicutes - bacteria with a single membrane and thick peptidoglycan wall, giving them Gram-positive stains Mollicutes - bacteria with no second membrane or wall, giving them Gram-negative stains The archeabacteria were originally included as the Mendosicutes. As given, these phyla are no longer believed to represent monophyletic groups. The Gracilicutes have been divided into many different phyla. Most gram-positive bacteria are placed in the phyla Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, which are closely related. However, the Firmicutes have been redefined to include the mycoplasmas (Mollicutes) and certain Gram-negative bacteria.

Benefits and dangers Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the environment, and animals, including humans. The role of bacteria in disease and infection is important. Some bacteria act as pathogens and cause tetanus, typhoid fever, pneumonia, syphilis, cholera, foodborne illness and tuberculosis. Sepsis, a systemic infectious syndrome characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, or many gram-negative bacteria. Some bacterial infections can spread throughout the host's body and become systemic. In plants, bacteria cause leaf spot, fireblight, and wilts. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water, and insect-borne microorganisms. The hosts infected with the pathogens may be treated with antibiotics, which can be classified as bacteriocidal and bacteriostatic, which at concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. Antiseptic measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for example, prior to cutting the skin during surgery or swabbing skin with alcohol when piercing the skin with the needle of a syringe. Sterilization of surgical and dental instruments is done to make them sterile or pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by bacteria. Sanitizers and disinfectants are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of infection.

In soil, microorganisms help in the transformation of nitrogen to ammonia with enzymes secreted by these microbes, which reside in the rhizosphere (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking). Some bacteria are able to use molecular nitrogen as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous compounds, a process known as nitrogen fixation. Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms. For example, their presence in the large intestine can help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes.

The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of microorganisms play important roles in the mineralization of specific classes of organic compounds. For example, the decomposition of cellulose, which is one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues, is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong to the genus Cytophaga.

Bacteria, often in combination with yeasts and molds, are used in the preparation of fermented foods such as cheese, pickles, soy sauce, sauerkraut, vinegar, wine, and yoghurt. Using biotechnology techniques, bacteria can be bioengineered for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as insulin, or for the bioremediation of toxic wastes.

Miscellaneous In terms of evolution, bacteria are thought to be very old organisms, appearing about 3.7 billion years ago.

Two organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts, are generally believed to have been derived from endosymbiotic bacteria.

Microorganisms are widely distributed and are most abundant where they have food, moisture, and the right temperature for their multiplication and growth. Bacteria can be carried by air currents from one place to another. The human body is home to billions of microorganisms; they can be found on skin surfaces, in the intestinal tract, in the mouth, nose, and other body openings. They are in the air one breathes, the water one drinks, and the food one eats.

A micro-organism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is invisible to the naked eye. The term is synonymous by usage to single-celled organism, and unicellular organism, even though some consist of more than one cell, some unicellular protists are visible to the naked eye, and some colonial species are microscopic. All unicellular organisms are able to reproduce themselves without help of other organisms, as opposed to viruses.

Micro-organisms may be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic structure. Bacteria and archaea are always or almost always microscopic, as are most protists. Even some fungi, a primarily macroscopic taxon, are micro-organisms.

Micro-organisms are found everywhere in nature, owing to the existence of extremophiles, micro-organisms that have adapted to generally hostile environments. Extremophiles may be found in environments such as the poles, deserts, geysers, just beneath the surface of rocks, and the bottom of the deep sea. Some are known to survive prolonged time in vacuum, or to be unusually resistant to radiation.

Micro-organisms can be helpful in recycling other organisms' remains and waste products, or when employed in biotechnology, e.g., for brewing and bakery. They can also be harmful as pathogens when, as parasites, causing infections. Micro-organisms were probably the first form of life that appeared on earth. Today they have an important place in all ecosystems and in most higher multicellular organisms. For mankind they are important for participating in driving the earths main element cycles, and for the creation of certain types of food, medical substances and biological weapons.

In the future, non-allergenic chocolates and other foodstuffs can be produced. Food can be genetically engineered to remove its protein component that causes allergies. This would relieve a great number of people who are now on restricted diets because of food allergy. Biotechnology offers us a wide range of products that will make our lives easier: by protecting us from disease, by finding new ways of treatment, by helping increase the production of food in quality and quantity, and by maintaining the environment. This is the thrust of The National Institutes of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Any new technology must not only be beneficial to the people, but must also follow the rules of sustainable development. l, a, f, b, d. As recipients of this technology, we must be open to all possibilities and support the work of Philippine researchers, because biotechnology is truly a "human technology".

Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals, they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The first animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology.

What then is biotechnology? The term brings to mind many different things. Some think of developing new types of animals. Others dream of almost unlimited sources of human therapeutic drugs. Still others envision the possibility of growing crops that are more nutritious and naturally pest-resistant to feed a rapidly growing world population. This question elicits almost as many first-thought responses as there are people to whom the question can be posed.

In its purest form, the term "biotechnology" refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. Prehistoric biotechnologists did this as they used yeast cells to raise bread dough and to ferment alcoholic beverages, and bacterial cells to make cheeses and yogurts and as they bred their strong, productive animals to make even stronger and more productive offspring.

Biotechnology is a broad term that applies to all practical uses of living organisms—anything from microorganisms used in the fermentation of beer to the most sophisticated application of gene therapy. The term covers applications that are old and new, familiar and strange, sophisticated and simple. Defined in this way, the term is almost too broad to be useful. One way of thinking about biotechnology is to consider two categories of activities: those that are traditional and familiar and those that are relatively new. Within each category can be found technologies that are genetic—that involve modifications of traits passed down from one generation to the next—and technologies that are not.

Although there are interesting issues connected with a number of biotechnologies—both old and new—most of UCS's work focuses on genetic engineering, a new genetic biotechnology.

Traditional Biotechnologies

A prime example of traditional genetic biotechnologies is selective breeding of plants and animals. The rudiments of selecting plants and animals with desirable traits and breeding them under controlled conditions probably go back to the dawn of civilization, but the expansion of knowledge about genetics and biology in this century has developed selective breeding into a powerful and sophisticated technology. New molecular approaches like marker-assisted breeding (which enhances traditional breeding through knowledge of which cultivars or breeds carry which trait) promise to enhance these approaches even further. Traditional breeding technologies have been immensely successful, and indeed are largely responsible for the high yields associated with contemporary agriculture. These technologies should not be considered passé or out of date. For multigene traits like intrinsic yield and drought resistance, they surpass genetic engineering. This is because selective breeding operates on whole organisms—complete sets of coordinated genes—while genetic engineering is restricted to three or four gene transfers with little control over where the new genes are inserted. For the most important agronomic traits, traditional breeding remains the technology of choice.

Other traditional nongenetic biotechnologies include the fermentation of microorganisms to produce wine, beer, and cheese. Industry also uses microorganisms to produce various products such as enzymes for use in laundry detergents. In an effort to find microorganisms that produce large amounts of enzymes, scientists sometimes treat a batch of organisms with radiation or chemicals to randomly produce genetic alternations. The process, called mutagenesis, produces numerous genetic changes in the bacteria, among which might be a few that produce more of the desired product.

New Biotechnologies

Many new biotechnologies do not involve modifications of traits passed on to the next generation. A good example is monoclonal antibodies (highly specific preparations of antibodies that bind to a single site on a protein), which have many diagnostic applications, including home pregnancy testing kits. Many biotechnology companies are engaged in these sophisticated, but noncontroversial, technologies. By contrast, mammalian cloning is a new biotechnology that does not involve gene modification, but is nevertheless highly controversial. Cloning reproduces adult mammals by transplanting a nucleus from adult cells into an egg from which the nucleus has been removed and allowing the egg to develop in a surrogate manner. The resulting individuals are as similar to the adults from which the nuclei were taken as identical twins are to one another. Although this procedure has profound implications for human reproduction, it does not modify specific traits of an individual, but rather transfers a whole nucleus containing a complete set of genetic information.

The new technology that can affect future generations is genetic engineering, a technology based on the artificial manipulation and transfer of genetic material. This technology can move genes and the traits they dictate across natural boundaries—from one type of plant to another, from one type of animal to another, and even from a plant to an animal or an animal to a plant. Cells modified by these techniques pass the new genes and traits on to their offspring. Genetic engineering can apply to any kind of living organism from microorganisms to humans.

Genetic engineering can be applied to humans to replace or supplement defective genes. Where engineering is intended to cure disease, it is called gene therapy. Potential applications that are not related to disease, such as the modification of traits like height, are sometimes called genetic enhancement. Currently, most genetic engineering of humans is done on nonreproductive or somatic cells, like those from bone marrow. The effects of this somatic cell gene therapy are confined to the treated individual. By contrast, germ line gene therapy would modify reproductive cells, so that the modification could be passed on to future generations.

Biotechnology; what is it? Biotechnology is the use of organisms to perform useful chemical reactions for industrial purposes. Brewing, in which yeast makes alcohol and carbon dioxide from sugar, is probably the easiest example which springs to mind. Modern biotechnology frequently involves genetic engineering of those organisms to improve an industrial process. The study of biotechnology at University involves study of microbiology, biochemistry and genetics. e, h, d, h, d. Knowledge of all three subjects is crucial in an area where microorganisms are frequently being genetically engineered to perform novel or enhanced biochemical reactions.

'Biotechnology' is a term used to cover the use of living things in industry, technology, medicine or agriculture. Biotechnology is used in the production of foods and medicines, the removal of wastes and the creation of renewable energy sources.

Simply defined, biotechnology is any technology that relies on living organisms or biological systems. By this definition, human beings have been using biotechnology for thousands of years to produce food products, textiles and other necessary items. Several familiar items -- including yeast-rising bread, yogurt, cheese, wine, beer and vinegar -- are all produced with the help of cultured microorganisms.

In recent years, however, the term "biotechnology" has come to mean the use of genetic engineering and its associated techniques. This more common definition is found in a variety of applications, from medicine to agriculture.

Amgen manufactures therapeutics based on molecules that already exist in the human body. Biotechnology is the process by which these natural components of the body are produced in sufficient quantities to use therapeutically.

Pharmaceuticals produced in this way are virtually identical to naturally occurring materials. These products are usually proteins, and have a very specific physiological role. As a result, they may have fewer undesirable side effects associated with them. By contrast, traditional drugs are produced through synthetic organic chemistry, and are often less specific in their activity. Numerous side effects can result, limiting the usefulness of these drugs.

In creating our protein products, Amgen scientists often use the techniques of genetic engineering. Starting with bacteria, yeast, or cultured animal cells, they introduce the information needed to produce a human protein with therapeutic potential. Once engineered, these cells can be grown in large quantities, often using the time-honored technique of fermentation.

During fermentation, single celled organisms such as yeasts and bacteria grow on sugars and starches. Their growth produces alcohol, carbon dioxide and other by-products. (The bubbles in alcohol in beer are a result of this process, as are the holes in bread and some cheeses.) While fermenting, engineered cells produce large quantities of another important product: the desired human protein. Depending how the cell was engineered, this protein is found either inside the cells or in the surrounding medium.

Agricultural biotechnology involves scientific methods that create, improve or modify plants and animals. This technology allows scientists to move desirable genes from one plant to another or from one animal to another. Through agricultural biotechnology, researchers transfer desirable genes (insect resistance, large muscle mass, better flavor, longer shelf life) into various plants and/or animals.

Traditional animal breeding involves selecting the best parent animals to produce desirable offspring. Animal reproduction through biotechnology includes techniques such as selecting a cattleman’s best bull and replicating it through cloning.

Traditional plant breeding involves transferring pollen containing a desired gene from one crop to another. Breeding plants through biotechnology involves adding a pest-resistant corn gene to another corn variety or to a soybean or wheat variety.

Agricultural biotechnology is the science of transferring beneficial genetic traits to improve the world’s supply of food and fiber.

Break biotechnology into its root words and you have bio — the use of biological processes; and technology — to solve problems or make useful products.

Using biological processes is hardly a new undertaking. We began growing crops and raising animals 10,000 years ago to provide a stable supply of food and clothing. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products. Why is biotechnology suddenly receiving so much attention?

During the 1960s and '70s our understanding of biology reached a point where we could begin to use the smallest parts of organisms—their cells and biological molecules—in addition to using whole organisms.

A more appropriate definition in the new sense of the word is this:

"New" Biotechnology — the use of cellular and biomolecular processes to solve problems or make products.

We can get a better handle on the meaning of the word biotechnology by simply changing the singular noun to its plural form, biotechnologies. Biotechnology is a collection of technologies that capitalize on the attributes of cells, such as their manufacturing capabilities, and put biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to work for us.

Cells and Biological Molecules

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The simplest living things, such as yeast, consist of a single, self-sufficient cell. Complex creatures more familiar to us, such as plants, animals and humans, are made of many different cell types, each of which performs a very specific task.

In spite of the extraordinary diversity of cell types in living things, what is most striking is their remarkable similarity. This unity of life at the cellular level provides the foundation for biotechnology.

All cells have the same basic design, are made of the same construction materials and operate using essentially the same processes. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of almost all living things, directs cell construction and operation, while proteins do all the work. Because DNA contains the information for making proteins, it directs cell processes by determining which proteins are produced and coordinating their activities.

All cells speak the same genetic language. The DNA information manual of one cell can be read and implemented by cells from other living things. Because a genetic instruction to make a certain protein is universally understood by all cells, technologies based on cells and biological molecules give us great flexibility in using nature's diversity.

In addition, cells and biological molecules are extraordinarily specific in their interactions. Because of this specificity, biotechnology's tools and techniques are precise; they are tailored to operate in known, predictable ways. As a result, biotechnology products will solve specific problems, generate gentler or fewer side effects and have fewer unintended consequences. Specific, precise, predictable. Those are the words that best describe today's biotechnology.

Basically bioremediation is using microorganisms to remove pollutants from an environment. At its natural rate this process would be called biodegradation. The name bioremediation accompanies when the human factor, manipulating conditions affecting the rate, enters the picture. It is most often used for the treatment of non-toxic liquid and solid wastes, contaminated ground water, toxic and hazardous wastes and grease decomposition. It is known to be a practical and cost-effective method to remove hydrocarbons from contaminated areas. Altogether, more than 70 microbial genera are known to contain organisms that can degrade petroleum components(8, Congress Report). Since any given oil would have a diversity of compounds, obviously there is a need for the variety. Organic contaminants that make up the oil, provide energy and act as a carbon source. The microorganisms transform contaminants to less harmful compounds through aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, cometabolism and reductive dehalogenation. The microbes may demobilize the contaminants as well in 3 ways as the National Research Council (page 23) has stated:

Microbial biomass can sorb hydrophobic organic molecules. sufficient biomass grown in the path of contaminant migration could stop or slow contaminant movement. This concept is sometimes called a biocurtain.

Microorganisms can produce reduced or oxidized species that cause metals to precipitate. Fe(OH)3 , FeS precipitates would be certain examples.

Why is biotechnology important? Biotechnology is not a new science, and originated from the day man first brewed beer and baked bread. Traditional uses of biotech will continue and are crucially important to society. However, with the recent advances in DNA sequencing of genomes, particularly the human genome, biotech science is well placed to make rapid advances. The potential of biotechnology to provide new health products, new fuels such as hydrogen, advances in agriculture and management of the environment (eg. oil spill clean-up) is immense but at present only partly tapped. i, f, b, h, b. Biotechnology is well-placed to contribute significantly to future sustainable technology development.

Microorganisms can biodegrade organic compounds that bind with metals and keep the metals in solution. Unbound metals often precipitate and are immobilized.

The National Research Council divides the applications of bioremediation into two broad categories, namely intrinsic and engineered bioremediation. Intrinsic bioremediation is similar to a no-action alternative; however, monitoring and proof that microorganisms act as eliminators of contaminants is necessary. With engineered bioremediation the human factor comes into the picture. As stated in the Congress Report there are three major approaches used for bioremediation of marine oil spills: stimulation of indigenous microorganisms through addition of nutrients(fertilization), introduction of special assemblages of naturally occurring oil degrading microorganisms(seeding) and introduction of genetically engineered microorganisms(GEMs) with special oil degrading properties. Research has shown that in most cases the contaminated area contains enough variety of organisms but does not have the capacity to feed them. Therefore, using seeding methods or introducing GEMs to a site have not been widely used. Most of the experiments were administered on fertilization methods-or nutriation as some call it. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska on March 24, 1989 , scientists had a grand opportunity to work on the unknown aspects of this technology. As Pritchard explains it, there were three main criteria in making a fertilizer selection: ease of application potential to retain position on the beaches, nutrient release characteristics and physical durability over time. Basically three modes of application were observed, briquettes, granules and liquid. Of the three, granules seemed to be the most apt method. These fertilizers contained nitrogen as a majority and also some phosphorus. So it was important to reach a level of nutrients without exceeding level of toxicity for certain marine invertebrates to survive. It is important to realize that for each site the best mode of fertilizer application would be different and that it would have to be determined specifically. Therefore, it is not possible to state one fertilizer as the ultimate method.

There are certain environmental factors that affect the bioremediation processes such as temperature, pressure, oxygen level, salinity, pH, turbulence, background concentration of inorganic nutrients and the type of contaminants. As expressed in the Congress Report most sea water is between -2 and 35¡C. Biodegradation has been recorded to be faster at the higher end of this scale. As the temperature decreases the rate decreases and sometimes decreases dramatically. Pressure seems to have an inverse effect. As pressure increases biodegradation rates have decreased. This apparently causes problems in deep oceans. Oxygen is one of the most important factors in the biodegradation process since most of the degradation is done by means of aerobic respiration. Usually it is not a limiting factor on or near surface of the ocean; however, as one goes deeper rates decrease. Factors such as pH, salinity and turbulence are known not to have major influences on the process. The presence of nutrients is one of the major factors affecting degradation. Since this has been noticed, scientists have been working on methods to solve this issue more than anything else. As a result there has been vast experimentation on fertilization techniques, as explained before. Another important factor would be related to the contaminant- its susceptibility and the complicating factors that accompany. Certain complicating factors as the National Research Council has put it, are unavailability of contaminants to the organisms, toxicity of contaminants to the organisms, presence of multiple contaminants and natural organic chemicals, incomplete degradation of contaminants and inability to remove contaminants to low concentrations. The susceptibility of the contaminant has been, however, of major concern. After long series of experimentation Hinchee and his colleagues have come to the following conclusion: within families of compounds, the more substituted the compound, the slower the rate at which the constituent was lost by degradation. Generally, these results are not inconsistent with the widely held view that the order of decreasing susceptibility to biodegradation of petroleum constituents has been n-alkanes> branched alkanes > low-molecular weight aromatics> cyclic alkanes> high-molecular weight alkanes> polar compounds. The order of biodegradation of petroleum products by Prince William Sound, Alaska microorganisms was hexadecane=napthalene> pristane> phytane> fluorenes> dibenzothiophene=phenanthrene> chrysene. It is important to note that the results have proven the general notion that phytane and pristane are difficult to degrade, incorrect.

One must view the advantages and the disadvantages of bioremediation before evaluating its efficiency. As is summarized in the Congress Report, bioremediation usually involves minimal physical disruption, has no significant adverse effects when used correctly, is helpful in removing certain toxic components of oil, offers a simpler and more thorough solution than mechanical technologies and is probably less costly than other approaches. However, it does not remain without disadvantages. It is of undetermined effectiveness for many types of spills, may not be appropriate at open sea but rather the coastlines, takes time to work, approach must be specifically tailored for each polluted site and optimization requires substantial information about spill site and oil characteristics.

What is Biotechnology?

Imagine a microorganism that will clean up ocean oil spills, a new antibiotic that can be quickly altered to combat drug-resistant strains of bacteria, or a cancer vaccine that will help prolong human life. This is biotechnology.

Biotechnology uses biological systems, such as bacteria, to create goods and services. And while it's been around for thousands of years - the use of yeast in the making of cheese, bread and beer is biotechnology - our growing understanding of DNA, the basic genetic material of living organisms, has ushered this technology into an era of new discovery.

Canada is a world leader in biotech products. From Frederick Banting and Charles Bests' discovery of life-saving insulin in 1921, to the development of 3TC, an anti-viral drug effectively used to prolong the life of people infected with the AIDS virus, in 1997, Canadians have made headlines with their biotech discoveries.

The use of a biological science to create a new product was revolutionized in the 1940s and '50s with the discovery of the role and structure of the DNA molecule. Today, the technology breaks down into six areas:

Genetic Engineering - Selective breeding and the manipulation of genes to change the characteristics of an organism. Cell Culture Technology - Growing animal and plant cells in a lab, using cultured cells as production systems. Cell Fusion Technology - Fusing cells using chemicals or electric shock to create hybrids, and using artificial cells as delivery mechanisms for new drugs and other therapies. Enzyme Technology - The use of enzymes, (enzyme proteins control all of the chemical reactions that make up life) to bio-convert, degrade or synthesize materials. Fermentation Technology - The ability to grow cells in very large quantities. Immobilization Technology - The ability to attach cells, enzymes and DNA to solid, inorganic surfaces.

According to the Biotechnology Human Resource Council, the term biotechnology was first used in Canada in 1983 to describe the "manipulation of hereditary traits manually by transferring genes from one organism to another."

Modern biotechnology refers to the tools used to identify, understand and take advantage of genetic variations in animals, plants or humans. Researchers study genes and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) to understand complicated biological processes that will hopefully uncover the causes of certain human diseases.

The knowledge gained from researching human genes is used to develop new and innovative ways to help and heal people suffering from a variety of diseases and to improve our quality of life.

Biotechnology has the potential of great benefits to humankind through innovations in food production, pharmaceuticals and general genetic research. Many of these areas are controversial due to a variety of deeply held beliefs, and legislation to control types of research and public information have become hot political issues throughout the world.

Biotechnology can be described in many different ways, but a straightforward definition is :

Biotechnology is the use of biological organisms or enzymes in the synthesis, breakdown or transformation of materials in the service of people.

The polymerase chain reaction has enabled scientists to make large quantities of DNA from tiny samples. This in turn has made much of the most recent and exciting DNA technology possible. The ability to sequence DNA, identifying genes and what they do, the Human Genome Project, and DNA fingerprinting – all depend for their success on this ingenious technique.

The Human Genome Project, which has sequenced the whole of the human DNA, has been a massive international effort of biotechnology. The results are being used to help design very specifically targeted pharmaceutical molecules. These will provide better treatments which can be given at lower doses. What is more, these new medicines should have relatively few side effects because they will work with our individual genetic makeup rather than against it.

The new DNA technologies are helping scientists develop many new medicines which should enable us to treat many diseases more effectively. Knowledge of the human genome is also making it easier to test for genetic diseases. Gene probes have been developed to test for known genetic disorders. What’s more, in the future it seems likely that doctors will be able to find out our genetic tendency to develop diseases like cancer and heart disease. This in turn will help us to make lifestyle plans to help us remain healthy – choosing our diets, our exercise levels and our jobs to make sure we avoid situations our genes are not well-equipped to cope with.

Biotechnology is the use of living things, or life processes to make something useful. The term was coined in 1915, and understood to include such ancient practices as brewing and baking, cheesemaking, selective breeding of plants and livestock, and later, vaccine and pharmaceutical development. In recent years (since the late 70's) it has come to indicate the application of a much more sophisticated set of techniques and tools, as our understanding of how biological things work has rapidly accelerated (especially at the level of DNA). b, a, j, j, h. These tools and techniques, taken from biochemistry, immunology, microbiology, cell biology and chemistry, are used to address a variety of problems. Public institutions and private companies are engaged in research, development and manufacturing of products and procedures in medicine (diagnostics and therapeutics), agriculture, and environmental science.

One area of biotechnology which nearly everyone has heard of is genetic engineering. We now have genetically-modified organisms ranging from bacteria to cows and sheep which produce life-saving medicines including vaccines, insulin and blood-clotting factors. Genetically-modified bacteria can even make the lung surfactant needed to save the life of a premature baby. Hundreds of thousands of people benefit from the chemicals these very special organisms produce.

Gene therapy is another area of medical biotechnology which is still in the early stages of development. The hope is that gene technology will help scientists develop ways to correct mistakes in the DNA code which lead to genetic diseases such as SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency).

Medicine also benefits from many sensitive tests which indicate the presence or absence of substances in body fluids. Biotechnological advances in the use of immobilised enzymes and monoclonal antibodies mean these tests have become increasingly rapid and accurate in recent years. A common example is the pregnancy test in the picture (left). This used to take weeks – now it can be done at home on the first day of a missed period and the results are ready in minutes!

Cloning – making genetically identical copies of an organism – is not new biotechnology. Gardeners and farmers have being cloning plants for centuries. The new developments which have caused much controversy involve the cloning of mammals, from sheep to pigs to humans. The technology holds out many exciting possibilities for producing herds of genetically modified animals making useful medicines in their milk. There is also the very real possibility of producing new tissues for transplantation which would not cause any rejection problems – because they would be cloned from the patient themselves. But there are some real concerns about the ethics of this work and society is still deciding what is the right way to go.

More controversial developments in biotechnology involve research into the use of stem cells. These cells, taken from the hollow ball of cells which make up the early human embryo, have the potential to grow and develop into new tissues or organs to replace others which are worn out or diseased. This area of biotechnology is still at a very early stage but the potential for medical advances is enormous. The use of human embryos means that it is also, for some people, very controversial.

Most of the developments in biotechnology have taken place in a very short space of time, beginning with the revelation of the structure of the DNA molecule 50 years ago. The biotechnology timeline shows just how rapidly DNA technology has developed.

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology is a set of scientific tools which uses living things to solve problems and make products.

The use of yeasts and bacteria to make bread, beer, wine and cheese are techniques that have been used for centuries. Traditional plant and animal breeding techniques are of more recent origin. Such methods can be seen as 'biotechnology' even though the term biotechnology was not coined until 1917. So-called traditional biotechnology is also used to extract and purify active components from plants and animals to produce cosmetics, drugs and health foods.

Modern biotechnology uses new techniques which provide much more understanding of, and control over, living processes. These new approaches are producing applications such as genetically engineered crops, DNA fingerprinting and cloning.

An even newer development is the integration of biotechnology with other disciplines such as information and computer technology and materials science. This approach is producing novel products like biosensors, which provide physical objects with the sensory capabilities of living things, and gene chips in which many thousands of DNA fragments are attached to a chip for rapid screening of genetic characteristics.

The following pages in this booklet outline some of the technologies and applications that fit within the scope of biotechnology. Rather than covering the full breadth of biotechnology, this booklet focuses on the newer biotechnologies about which there may be significant social, ethical or safety issues. Many of these relate to gene technologies, such as genetic engineering.

Biotechnology is “any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms, to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific purposes” (Office of Technology Assessment, United States Congress).

Although the term sounds contemporary, biotechnology is not new. Over 9,000 years ago, people discovered that microorganisms could be used to make bread, brew alcohol, and produce cheese. Although this process of fermentation was not thoroughly understood at the time, its use still constitutes a traditional application of biotechnology.

What is new, however, is the extent of applications and sophistication of biotechnology techniques currently employed. Researchers can manipulate living organisms and transfer genetic material between organisms. Genetic engineering, the specific modification or transfer of genetic material, underlies modern biotechnological innovation

These current applications of biotechnology are predominantly practiced in the fields of agriculture and medicine. Modern techniques allow for the production of new and improved foods. Virus resistant crop plants and animals have been developed and advances in insect resistance have been made. Biotechnology applications in the field of medicine have resulted in new antibiotics, vaccines for malaria, and improved ways of producing insulin. Diagnostic tests for detecting serious diseases such as hereditary cancers and Huntington’s chorea have been developed as well as ways of detecting and treating AIDS.

Biotechnology is also being applied in the areas of pollution control, mining and energy production. Genetically engineered microorganisms and plants are used to clean up toxic wastes from industrial production and oil spills. Biotechnology applications have also been introduced into the forestry and aquaculture industries. These strategies offer hope for conservation biologists. Genetic methods can be used to identify particular populations of endangered species. Thanks to biotechnology, minute traces of animal or plant remains can be used to track and convict poachers. Genetic analysis can help botanical gardens, zoos, and game farms improve their breeding programs by determining the genetic diversity of various plant and animal populations.

Overall, biotechnology has significantly impacted and improved the quality of life for people on this planet. And it doesn’t end there. Complementing the creative endeavors of researchers and engineers are the efforts to commercialize biotechnology products with the input of business management and marketing personnel. The expertise of intellectual property and patent lawyers are also a necessary component in the process. New career opportunities in the area of bioinformatics are on the increase.

An important part of biotechnology is food biotechnology. This involves steps from the food production process and delivery to consumption. Cheaper raw materials such as food enzymes, engineered products such as delayed-ripening tomatoes and low-saturated-fat soybean oil ensure that we are given fresher, tastier, and healthier food products at lower cost. Future developments in Biotechnology Gene therapy is a promising and active area of biotechnology. It refers to the application of genetic engineering techniques in curing diseases, especially hereditary diseases. g, g, l, i, k. Basically, a sick person may have genes from his father or mother that are defective, causing the disease. Genetic engineers can find ways to add a functional gene to the individual's cells so that he may be able to produce the needed substances that will stop the disease.

Biotechnology can be defined as the controlled and deliberate manipulation of biological systems (whether living cells or cell components) for the efficient manufacture or processing of useful products. The fact that living organisms have evolved such an enormous spectrum of biological capabilities means that by choosing appropriate organisms it is possible to obtain a wide variety of substances, many of which are useful to man as food, fuel and medicines. Over the past 30 years, biologists have increasingly applied the methods of physics, chemistry and mathematics in order to gain precise knowledge, at the molecular level, of how living cells make these substances. By combining this newly-gained knowledge with the methods of engineering and science, what has emerged is the concept of biotechnology which embraces all of the above-mentioned disciplines.

"Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services" (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development).(Takeoka GR, et al., eds. 1996)

This broad definition of biotechnology encompasses the use of traditional techniques such as the use of yeasts and bacteria for leavening, brewing, fermentation and culturing yogurt. Selective breeding of plants and animals to create more productive breeds is a form of biotechnology.

The term "biotechnology" for many people refers specifically to the genetic engineering techniques that have been developed in the past two to three decades. These techniques have beneficial applications in medicine, agriculture, food processing, food safety, waste management, and crime detection.

Biotechnology is a key technology for many industrial sectors including pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, agriculture and waste treatment. Through the application of biotechnology there have already been major developments in healthcare, including the production of new medicines, new methods for the large-scale production of existing medicines and new, more accurate diagnostic tests for diseases such as HIV. In other areas biotechnology is focusing on developing replacement processes that are less polluting and energy consuming, and provides a basis for sustainability, the concept by which Nature’s resources are recycled, thus protecting the environment.

Although the science of biotechnology has been used for some time, there is still some public confusion over the nature of the technology. In general terms, biotechnology is the use of biological processes to make useful products (including modified organisms, substances and devices). In healthcare alone, biotechnology products include those naturally produced by the body to fight disease, as well as products which are manufactured by chemical synthesis but have used biological processes and screening methods for their initial discovery.

In many ways, biotechnology is an old science. Without understanding the principles of fermentation or genetics, mankind has used some biotechnology processes since antiquity, for example, in the production of cheese, bread, alcohol, penicillin or the selective breeding of animals and plants.

It is also a new science in that, only since the 1970s, have advances in molecular biology and other sophisticated techniques enabled scientists to have a better knowledge of how individual cells and their components work in the body. This has enabled scientists to develop new methods for isolating genes and instructing cells outside the body to make large quantities of human proteins.

One of the results is medicines that are based on - or even replicate - the body’s own disease-fighting mechanisms: medicines that work with the body rather than against it. Biotech medicines are already being used in the treatment of many problems, including cancers, anaemia, heart attacks, rheumatoid arthritis, viral infections and multiple sclerosis.

The techniques of biotechnology are also being used to produce, in large quantities, substances such as Factor VIII for the treatment of haemophilia, or human growth hormone to help overcome pituitary dwarfism. Diabetes can also be treated with a biotechnology-produced version of human insulin to overcome the deficiency in sufferers. Previously, these materials had to be extracted from human and animal tissue with some difficulty and with potential risks for the patient. Biotechnology has provided a better alternative. One of the first great successes of biotechnology in healthcare has been to create a safer and more effective vaccine against Hepatitis B. New types of therapeutic vaccines are being developed to treat, rather than prevent disease, including HIV, herpes and various cancer-causing infections. Biotechnology is also leading to the development of new medicines for diseases, which, until now, have been otherwise untreatable. Beta-interferon, for example, is giving new hope to multiple sclerosis patients, where before there has been no hope of treatment.

Biotechnology is likely to come up with new therapies for many more unconquered diseases. The technology will help in the earlier diagnosis of disease and will help to identify more accurately gene abnormalities that may lead to the treatment of certain hereditary diseases.

In agriculture, biotechnology has the promise to produce foods with enhanced nutrition and flavour, and crops with increased yield. Most of today’s hard cheese products are made with an enzyme chymosin, which is produced by biotechnology. In the UK the first recombinant tomato paste was launched in supermarkets earlier this year. Biotechnology has the potential to make crops more nutritious, to taste better, last longer and naturally resist insects, viruses and herbicides. This can reduce our dependence on chemical pesticides. Therefore, Biotechnology can contribute to solving some of the World’s food problems.

What Is Biotechnology And Why Do We Need It?

Biotechnology refers to the techniques that allow scientists to modify DNA, the genetic material of living organisms, to enhance their tolerance to pests and diseases, increase yield and improve quality and nutritional value. Biotechnology can bring many benefits to medicine, the environment and industry. It also has a wide range of possible applications in food and agriculture. The benefits to agriculture include:

Improving Crop Yield

Genetically improved plants (GIPs) have been developed to be more tolerant to disease, weeds insects, and drought and be able to grow in difficult environmental conditions. Considering the devastating impact of pests, weeds and disease on yields, the agronomic and economic benefit when plants have built in tolerance is enormous.

Increasing a crop's yield enables us to use less land to produce the same amount or more food. This also allows us to preserve other lands such as native forests and delicate ecosystems for the benefit of the environment and wildlife. Without increasing crop yields more and more non-arable land will be brought into production to feed the growing population. In many cases, this land is unsuitable for long term cultivation and its use will result in environmental degradation, or the destruction of the few remaining wild lands and native forests.

Less Chemical Usage

Biotechnology can also help farmers reduce the amount of pesticides they need to use on crops. For instance, by making crops tolerant to a specific herbicide, weeds can be killed without damaging the crop. The amount of herbicide used per acre of crop can also be reduced relative to regular practices. Insect-tolerant crops not only reduce the volume of insecticide sprayed but also encourage natural and biological control by not affecting the beneficial insects. Insect-tolerant crops can form the basis of extremely effective Integrated Pest Management practices.

Improved Food Quality

Biotechnology can give our food improved quality characteristics. Scientists have the ability to improve the taste, appearance and the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables.

Another advantage created by biotechnology is genetically improving the gene responsible for ripening. For example, delayed-ripening tomatoes reduce the waste that occurs during transport. In some countries, up to 20% of fresh produce is destroyed on the way to market due to unsuitability of these crops for transport. In India, where the food transportation sector is not completely developed and huge losses occur, delayed-ripening fruits and vegetables would benefit consumers living far from agricultural areas.

Environment Friendly

Among the environmental benefits of biotechnology is a reduction in the use of pesticides and herbicides, the prospect of more food production from the same unit of land and more nutritious food produce. In addition, scientists have developed methods utilizing biotechnology to clean up pollution (bioremediation), caused by, for instance, oil spills.

Biotechnology can be defined as making use of the natural processes or products of living things. This covers most of what we think of as biotechnology:

medical biotechnology, which uses microorganisms (such as bacteria or fungi) to make antibiotics or vaccines

industrial biotechnology, which uses microorganisms to make enzymes (e.g. to add to biological washing powders), or to produce beer, cheese or bread

environmental biotechnology, which uses microorganisms or plants to clean up land or water that is polluted with sewage or industrial waste and

agricultural biotechnology which aims to produce better crops, ‘natural’ fertilizers, or feed additive New technologies, discoveries and a better understanding of the natural processes of living organisms are extending this list almost daily to give opportunities for developing new medicines and improved products for agriculture and industry.

Defining biotechnology in agriculture and food production When we consider agriculture and food production, ‘biotechnology’ is more difficult to define. How is making milk from cows, or flour from wheat different from making antibiotics from bacteria? All these products are normally produced in Nature, but we have harnessed the natural ability of organisms that produce them for our own use. By breeding plants and animals, or choosing the best antibiotic-producing strains of bacteria or fungi, we have selected organisms with the genetic make-up that gives them the ‘improved’ characteristics we desire.

‘Traditional’ biotechnology

‘Traditional’ biotechnology is nearly as old as humankind: brewing, breadmaking and cheesemaking are all ancient ways of using natural fermentation processes of microorganisms to either preserve food produced through agriculture, or create new tastes and textures – indeed, entirely new foods. These same processes of microorganisms are used today for a wider range of applications, to produce valuable products such as antibiotics or enzymes for medicine or industry, too.

‘Modern’ biotechnology

‘Modern’ biotechnology attempts to achieve the same goals – new or better products – but more efficiently. Because we can now identify which genes code for particular characteristics, and can move the genes from one organism to another, we can achieve the most useful combination of genes in plants more quickly by genetic modification than by breeding or selection. Sometimes, genes are moved between closely related organisms – for example, from a plant that makes a particularly valuable product but only in small amounts, to a plant that has the machinery to make vast amounts of product. Alternatively, genes can be moved between very different organisms: genes for human insulin moved into bacteria provide a cheap, safe and plentiful supply of insulin to treat diabetics.

Literally speaking, biotechnology refers to the application of our knowledge of biological phenomena to serve our economic and social needs. However, this extremely broad definition is not very useful, as it embraces almost all aspects of our society from agriculture to beer and wine fermentations, to medicine, cheese and bread making, plant and animal breeding, cloning, embryo transfer, and even mining of certain metals with bacteria.

A more modern and focused definition which is more consistent with current usage would limit the term to the application of modern techniques of molecular biology and bioinformatics to solve industrial and scientific problems. However, this definition is still quite broad as it includes such applications as transgenic animals and plants, marine natural products, recombinant bacteria and fungi for the production of proteins, comparative genomics for research into evolutionary relationships and the genetic basis of disease, gene arrays for the study of gene expression and developmental biology, and the myriad applications of cell and tissue culture in research and industry.

If you were to ask 20 people this question, you would probably receive 20 differing responses. That's because biotechnology is a collection of technologies that are being deployed across a whole host of industries including: agriculture, environment, food, forestry, health, and mining.

This section is designed to provide a background to what biotechnology entails and why there is so much excitement about the biotechnology industry in general. Considering all that has been written about the industry this introduction is not meant to be all embracing. Instead, we have provided useful links in order for you to delve further into both the science and the industry itself.

Biotechnology deals with the manipulation of the DNA molecule in very precise and directed ways, generally in the context of industrial or commercial applications. The common element to the technology is the use of cells, cellular processes, and the manipulation of molecular events, in ways that achieve predictable and reproducible results. Biotechnology has many goals, including:

Improving our understanding of inheritance and gene expression Improving our understanding and treatment of genetic disorders (and some diseases) Providing economic benefits in agriculture and the production of biological molecules Increase livestock productivity. Developing biodegradable plastics and innovative biomaterials Decreasing water and air pollution

In order to achieve the required results in these areas you have to know how each system works in the first place. Understanding how cells function lie at the very heart of biotechnology and why it has become so important as we head into the 21st century. Scientists have developed sophisticated ways that are enabling them to unravel the mysteries of life in all its marvellous forms. In so doing, they are opening up opportunities for the commercial exploitation of these discoveries such as those identified above.

Biotechnology in Action: It has been discovered that certain forms of cancer arise from the fact that normal cells fail to respond to the genetic instructions that cause them to enter a natural process of committing suicide. This cell death process is happening in our bodies all the time as old cells, that have served their useful purpose, are removed and replaced with new ones. When the genetic "switches" regulating the normal cell death process fail, instead of being removed, pre-cancerous cells remain and often grow unrestrained. Our knowledge has raised intense interest in the value of producing drugs to control the death regulating machinery. If we could design a drug that would safely reactivate the "death signals" in a cancer cell, without affecting normal tissues, then the cancer would be removed from the body.

This is why programmed cell death (apoptosis) is rapidly becoming one of the hottest areas of biotechnology. The past five years have witnessed an explosion of research efforts in the study of how cells die. By elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying apoptosis, researchers believe that they will be able to define the mechanisms of certain diseases and develop new pharmaceuticals to aid in their treatment. (AEgera Therapeutics and Gemin X Biotechnologies, in the CMDF portfolio, are both involved in apoptosis research.)

It is stories such as this that is capturing our imagination about biotechnology. Numerous studies report that we have entered an era that has been called the new bioeconomy where major diseases that reap such a devastating toll on humanity are rapidly being unravelled through the use of molecular biology and genetic analysis.

The most simple definition available is that Biotechnology is the use of biological processes to solve problems and to make useful products. On this definition we have been using Biotechnology for thousands of years. We have used the biological processes of micro-organisms to brew beer and wine, and to make foods like bread and cheese.

Major advances in science from the 1950s, and particularly in the last years of the 20th century, have extended the reach of Biotechnology so that its applications today would seem the stuff of science fiction to the early pioneers of the 1950s. These advances have given rise to what many now call "New" Biotechnology - the use of cellular and biomolecular processes to solve problems or make useful products. This collection of technologies now capitalizes on the attributes of cells, such as their manufacturing capabilities, and uses the properties of biological molecules such as DNA and proteins in productive ways to synthesise outcomes for the benefit of all. A Biotech Guide is available.

Some world-wide examples of Biotechnology in practice today include:

the hundreds of drug products and vaccines targeting a myriad of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, AIDS and arthritis the hundreds of medical diagnostic tests to detect medical conditions early enough for them to be successfully treated agricultural products such as pest-resistant corn that have been developed using biotechnology the use of biotechnology to remediate hazardous waste industrial applications such as the use of enzymes in laundry detergent DNA fingerprinting in forensic situations

Biotechnology is the "science of harnessing the natural and biological capabilities of plants, animals, and microbes for the benefit of people". Generally, biotechnology can be divided into the traditional and the new, or advanced, biotechnologies

Traditional Biotechnology When man first thought of agriculture, traditional biotechnology took form. The selection and cross-breeding of different varieties of grain to produce healthier plants is an example of biotechnology that is still being used today. The same thing is being done with horses and livestock. The process of fermenting malt into beer using certain microbes is another example of traditional biotechnology.

Advanced Biotechnology The traditional methods have been improved upon with the help of scientists called genetic engineers. They work with the genetic material called DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid ), a "coding system" found in all living things that controls the features an organism will have. The DNA is grouped together into genes that contain instructions on specific actions, like the production of nutrients in fruits, or the ability of yeast to ferment sugar into alcohol. In genetic engineering, the genes responsible for the desired feature of an organism may be enhanced. Furthermore, beneficial genes can be transferred from one organism to another, as in cross-pollination, but this time in a more direct manner.

What has modern Biotechnology done for me? Biotechnology has probably affected us through most of our lives. When we were young, we were immunized against diseases such as hepatitis B and measles. These vaccines were produced with the aid of biotechnology. When we got sick, the antibiotics that doctors gave us came from bacteria. Even some of the food we eat are biotechnological products. For example, the enzyme chymosin, used to curdle milk into cheese, is now being produced through biotechnology, whereas before, we derived this from the stomachs of slaughtered cows.

Our environment also benefits from biotechnological advances. Toxin- and metal-eating microbes are being developed to clean up polluted waters and industrial waste. Genetic markers have been made to help in the identification of endangered animal species. Endangered plants can be mass-propagated using current techniques. Biodegradable packaging, an alternative to plastics and paper, has also been produced.

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Last modified: May 25, 2005